L

Labor — Loving-Kindness

Labor

A. Noun.VED-OT Labor.2

‛Âmâl (עָמָל, Strong's #5999), “labor; toil; anguish; troublesome work; trouble; misery.” Cognates of this noun and the verb from which it is derived occur in Aramaic, Arabic, and Akkadian. The 55 occurrences of the noun are mostly in later poetic and prophetic literature (Genesis 41:51; Deuteronomy 26:7; Judges 10:16).VED-OT Labor.3

First, the word means “labor” in the sense of toil: “… The Lord heard our voice, and looked on our affliction, and our labor, and our oppression” (Deuteronomy 26:7). In Isaiah 53:11 ‛âmâl is used of the toilsome “labor” of the Messiah’s soul: “He shall see of the travail of his soul.…”VED-OT Labor.4

Second, something gained by toil or labor is ‛âmâl: "[He] gave them the lands of the heathen: and they inherited the labor of the people [i.e., of the land of Palestine]” (Psalms 105:44).VED-OT Labor.5

Third, ‛âmâl means “troublesome work”; the emphasis is on the difficulty involved in a task or work as troublesome and burdensome: “What profit hath a man of all his labor [troublesome labor] which he taketh under the sun?” (Ecclesiastes 1:3). All 17 appearances of the word in Ecclesiastes bear this meaning.VED-OT Labor.6

Fourth, sometimes the emphasis shifts to the area of trouble so that an enterprise or situation is exclusively troublesome or unfortunate: “… For God, said he, hath made me forget all my toil, and all my father’s house” (Genesis 41:51—the first occurrence). In Judges 10:16 we read that God “was grieved for the misery of Israel.”VED-OT Labor.7

Fifth, ‛âmâl can have an ethical connotation and is used as a word for sin. The wicked man “travaileth with iniquity, and hath conceived mischief, and brought forth falsehood” (Psalms 7:14; cf. Job 4:8).VED-OT Labor.8

Another noun ‛âmel means “laborer, sufferer.” This word appears infrequently in biblical Hebrew. In Proverbs 16:26 the word refers to “laborer”: “He that laboreth, laboreth for himself; for his mouth craveth it of him.” In Job 3:20 ‛âmel refers to a “sufferer”: “Wherefore is light given to him that is in misery.…”VED-OT Labor.9

B. Verbs. VED-OT Labor.10

‛Âmal (עָמַל, Strong's #5998), “to labor.” This verb occurs 11 times in biblical Hebrew and only in poetry. ‛Âmal appears several times in Ecclesiastes (2:11, 19, 21; 5:16. The verb is also found in Psalms 127:1: “Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that build it.…”VED-OT Labor.11

‛Âmal means “toiling.” This verb occurs only in a few instances in Ecclesiastes. One occurrence is in Ecclesiastes 3:9: “What profit hath he that worketh in that wherein he laboreth?”VED-OT Labor.12

Lamb (Male)

Kebeś (כֶּבֶשׂ, Strong's #3532), “lamb (male); kid.” The Akkadian cognate of this noun means “lamb,” whereas the Arabic cognate signifies “a young ram.” The word occurs 107 times in the Hebrew Old Testament, and especially in the Pentateuch.VED-OT Lamb (Male).2

The kebeś is a “young lamb” which is nearly always used for sacrificial purposes. The first usage in Exodus pertains to the Passover: “Your lamb shall be without blemish, a male of the first year: ye shall take it out from the sheep, or from the goats” (Exodus 12:5). The word gedi, “kid,” is a synonym for kebeś: “The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb [kebeś], and the leopard shall lie down with the kid [gedi]; and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them” (Isaiah 11:6). The traditional translation “lamb” leaves the gender uncertain. In Hebrew the word kebeś is masculine, whereas the kibshah, “young ewe lamb,” is feminine; cf. “And Abraham set seven ewe lambs of the flock by themselves” (Genesis 21:28).VED-OT Lamb (Male).3

The Septuagint gives the following translations: amnos (“lamb”); probaton (“sheep”); and arnos (“lamb”). The KJV gives these senses: “lamb; sheep.”VED-OT Lamb (Male).4

Land

'Ădâmâh (אֲדָמָה, Strong's #127), “ground; land; earth.” This noun also occurs in Arabic. Hebrew occurrences number about 224 and cover every period of biblical Hebrew.VED-OT Land.2

Initially this noun represents arable “ground” (probably red in color). As such it supports water and plants: “But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground” (Genesis 2:6). This meaning is in Genesis 1:25, where it first appears: “… every thing that creepeth upon the earth.…” The word is contrasted to unproductive soil, or “waste land,” and the generic word for the surface of the planet “earth,” which may represent either or both of the preceding words. The body of the first man, Adam, was formed exclusively from the 'ădâmâh (cf. Genesis 2:9): “And the Lord God formed man ['ădâm] of the dust of the ground ['ădâmâh] …” (Genesis 2:7).VED-OT Land.3

'Ădâmâh may be used specifically to describe what has been and will be cultivated by a given group of people, or what they possess to this end: “Look down from thy holy habitation, from heaven, and bless thy people Israel, and the land which thou hast given us, as thou swarest unto our fathers, a land that floweth with milk and honey” (Deuteronomy 26:15). A further variation of this nuance refers to the actual soil itself: “Shall there not then, I pray thee, be given to thy servant two mules’ burden of earth [with which to build an altar to the true God]?” (2 Kings 5:17).VED-OT Land.4

In Exodus 3:5 'ădâmâh is used more in the sense “ground,” what is below one’s feet irrespective of its cultivable properties: “… Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground."VED-OT Land.5

The nuance “property” or “possession” comes more clearly to the fore in passages such as Zechariah 2:12: “And the Lord shall inherit Judah his portion in the holy land …” (cf. Psalms 49:11). Although 'ădâmâh is never used politically, its use as “landed property” or “home country” sometimes approaches that sense (cf. Isaiah 14:2; 19:17; and especially Ezekiel 7:2). Isaiah 15:9: “… For I will bring more upon Dimon, lions upon him that escapeth of Moab, and upon the remnant of the land,” further illustrates this usage.VED-OT Land.6

Throughout the Old Testament there is a relationship between 'ădâm, “man,” and the 'ădâmâh. The two words have an etymological affinity inasmuch as they both appear to be derived from the verb 'ădom, “to be red.” If Adam were to remain obedient to God, the “ground” would give forth its fruit. Hence, the “ground” was God’s possession and under His command (Genesis 2:6). He made it respond to His servant. The entry of sin disrupted the harmony between man and the “ground,” and the “ground” no longer responded to man’s care. His life moved in and toward death rather than upward and toward life. Increased human rebellion caused decreased fruitfulness of the “ground” (Genesis 4:12, 14; cf. 8:21). In Abraham the promised redemption (Genesis 3:15) took the form of the restoration of a proper relation between God and man and between man and the “ground” (Genesis 28:14-15). Under Moses the fruitfulness of the “ground” depended on the obedience of God’s people (cf. Deuteronomy 11:17).VED-OT Land.7

'Erets (אֶרֶץ, 776), “land (the whole earth); dry land; ground; land (political); underworld.” This word has cognates in Ugaritic, PhoenicianPunic, Moabite, Akkadian, Aramaic (here the radicals are ‘rq or ‘r’), and Arabic (‘rd). 'Erets occurs in biblical Hebrew about 2,504 times (22 times in biblical Aramaic) and in all periods.VED-OT Land.8

The word often represents the whole surface of this planet and, together with the word “heavens,” describes the entire physical creation and everything in it. This meaning is in its first biblical occurrence: “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth” (Genesis 1:1).VED-OT Land.9

'Erets sometimes means “land” as contrasted to sea or water. This use, for example, is in Exodus 20:11: “For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day.…” This more narrow meaning first appears in Genesis 1:10, where God called the dry ground “land.” Here “land” includes desert and arable land, valleys and mountains—everything that we know today as continents and islands.VED-OT Land.10

'Erets refers to the physical “ground” under the feet of men and animals. Upon the “ground” creep all creeping things: “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion … over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth” (Genesis 1:26). Dust lies upon the 'erets (Exodus 8:16), and rain and dew fall on it (Genesis 2:5).VED-OT Land.11

'Erets may be used geographically, i.e., to identify a territory: “And Haran died before his father Terah in the land of his nativity” (Genesis 11:28).VED-OT Land.12

'Erets sometimes bears a political connotation and represents both a given political territory and the people who live there: “And there was no bread in all the land; for the famine was very sore, so that the land of Egypt and all the land of Canaan fainted by reason of the famine” (Genesis 47:13). Not only the “land” languished, but (and especially) the people suffered.VED-OT Land.13

Next, in several passages this noun has both geographical and political overtones and identifies the possession or inheritance of a tribe. This emphasis is in Numbers 32:1: “Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle.…”VED-OT Land.14

In a seldom used, but interesting, nuance 'erets represents the “underworld”: “But those that seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the earth” (Psalms 63:9). Sometimes even used by itself (absolutely) this noun represents the “underworld”: “I went down to the bottoms of the mountains; the earth with her bars was about me for ever …” (Jonah 2:6). The Akkadian cognates sometimes bear this same meaning. Other Old Testament passages where some scholars find this meaning are Exodus 15:12; Psalms 71:20; and Jeremiah 17:13.VED-OT Land.15

Last

A. Adjective.VED-OT Last.2

'Achăryôn (אַחֲרֹן, Strong's #314), “at the back; western; later; last; future.” This word occurs about 51 times in biblical Hebrew.VED-OT Last.3

'Achăryôn has a local-spatial meaning. Basically, it means “at the back”: “And he put the handmaids and their children foremost, and Leah and her children after, and Rachel and Joseph hindermost” (Genesis 33:2—the first biblical appearance). When applied elsewhere, the word means “western”: “Every place whereon the soles of your feet shall tread shall be yours: from the wilderness and Lebanon, from the river, the river Euphrates, even unto the uttermost [western] sea shall your coast be” (Deuteronomy 11:24).VED-OT Last.4

Used temporally, 'achăryôn has several nuances. First, it means “last” as contrasted to the first of two things: “And it shall come to pass, if they will not believe thee, neither hearken to the voice of the first sign, that they will believe the voice of the latter sign” (Exodus 4:8). Second, it can represent the “last” in a series of things or people: “Ye are my brethren, ye are my bones and my flesh: wherefore then are ye the last to bring back the king?” (2 Samuel 19:12). The word also connotes “later on” and/or “afterwards”: “But thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death, and afterwards the hand of all the people” (Deuteronomy 13:9). Next the emphasis can be on the finality or concluding characteristic of a given thing: “Now these be the last words of David” (2 Samuel 23:1).VED-OT Last.5

'Achăryôn connotes “future,” or something that is yet to come: “… So that the generation to come of your children that shall rise up after you, and the stranger that shall come from a far land, shall say, when they see the plagues of that land …” (Deuteronomy 29:22). The combination of “first” and “last” is an idiom of completeness: “Now the rest of the acts of Solomon, first and last, are they not written in the book of Nathan the prophet, and in the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and in the visions of Iddo the seer against Jeroboam the son of Nebat?” (2 Chronicles 9:29). Likewise the phrase expresses the sufficiency of the Lord, since He is said to include within Himself the “first” as well as the “last”: “Thus saith the Lord the King of Israel, and his Redeemer the Lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and beside me there is no God” (Isaiah 44:6; cf. 48:12). These verses affirm that there is no other God, because all exists in Him.VED-OT Last.6

B. Verb.VED-OT Last.7

'Âchar (אָחַר, Strong's #309), “to tarry, remain behind, delay.” Other words derived from this verb are: “other,” “after (wards),” “backwards.” 'Âchar appears in Exodus 22:29 with the meaning “delay”: “Thou shalt not delay to offer the first of thy ripe fruits, and of thy liquors: the firstborn of thy sons shalt thou give unto me.”VED-OT Last.8

Law

A. Noun. VED-OT Law.2

Tôrâh (תֹּרָה, Strong's #8451), “law; direction; instruction.” This noun occurs 220 times in the Hebrew Old Testament.VED-OT Law.3

In the wisdom literature, where the noun does not appear with a definite article, tôrâh signifies primarily “direction, teaching, instruction”: “The law of the wise is a fountain of life, to depart from the snares of death” (Proverbs 13:14), and “Receive, I pray thee, the law from his mouth, and lay up his words in thine heart” (Job 22:22). The “instruction” of the sages of Israel, who were charged with the education of the young, was intended to cultivate in the young a fear of the Lord so that they might live in accordance with God’s expectations. The sage was a father to his pupils: “Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son: but he that is a companion of riotous men shameth his father” (Proverbs 28:7; cf. 3:1; 4:2; 7:2). The natural father might also instruct his son in wise living, even as a Godfearing woman was an example of kind “instruction”: “She openeth her mouth with wisdom; and in her tongue is the law of kindness” (Proverbs 31:26).VED-OT Law.4

The “instruction” given by God to Moses and the Israelites became known as “the law” or “the direction” (ha-tôrâh), and quite frequently as “the Law of the Lord”: “Blessed are the undefiled in the way, who walk in the law of the Lord” (Psalms 119:1), or “the Law of God”: “Also day by day, from the first day unto the last day, [Ezra] read in the book of the law of God” (Nehemiah 8:18), and also as “the Law of [given through] Moses”: “Remember ye the law of Moses my servant, which I commanded unto him in Horeb for all Israel …” (Malachi 4:4). The word can refer to the whole of the “law”: “For he established a testimony in Jacob, and appointed a law in Israel, which he commanded our fathers, that they should make them known to their children” (Psalms 78:5), or to particulars: “And this is the law which Moses set before the children of Israel …” (Deuteronomy 4:44).VED-OT Law.5

God had communicated the “law” that Israel might observe and live: “And what nation is there so great, that hath statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?” (Deuteronomy 4:8). The king was instructed to have a copy of the “law” prepared for him at his coronation (Deuteronomy 17:18). The priests were charged with the study and teaching of, as well as the jurisprudence based upon, the “law” (Jeremiah 18:18). Because of rampant apostasy the last days of Judah were times when there were no teaching priests (2 Chronicles 15:3); in fact, in Josiah’s days the “law” (whether the whole Torah, or a book or a part) was recovered: “And Hilkiah … said to Shaphan the scribe, I have found the book of the law in the house of the Lord” (2 Chronicles 34:15).VED-OT Law.6

The prophets called Israel to repeat by returning to the tôrâh (“instruction”) of God (Isaiah 1:10). Jeremiah prophesied concerning God’s new dealing with His people in terms of the New Covenant, in which God’s law is to be internalized, God’s people would willingly obey Him: “But this shall be the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel; After those days, saith the Lord, I will put my law in their inward parts, and write it in their hearts; and will be their God, and they shall be my people” (Jeremiah 31:33). The last prophet of the Old Testament reminded the priests of their obligations (Malachi 2) and challenged God’s people to remember the “law” of Moses in preparation for the coming Messiah (Malachi 4:4).VED-OT Law.7

The Septuagint gives the following translations: nomos (“law; rule”); nomimos (“conformable to law; lawful”); entole (“command[ment]; order”); and prostagma (“order; commandment; injunction”).VED-OT Law.8

B. Verb.VED-OT Law.9

Yârâh (יָרָא, Strong's #3384), “to throw, cast, direct, teach, instruct.” The noun yârâh is derived from this root. The meaning “to cast” appears in Genesis 31:51: “And Laban said to Jacob, Behold this heap, and behold this pillar, which I have cast betwixt me and thee.” Yârâh means “to teach” in 1 Samuel 12:23: “… but I will teach you the good and the right way.”VED-OT Law.10

Left, Remain

A. Verb.VED-OT Left, Remain.2

Yâthar (יָתַר, Strong's #3498), “to be left; remain over; excel; show excess.” This word is found in various Semitic languages, ranging from ancient Akkadian to modern Hebrew. In its verb forms, the word is found just over 100 times in the Hebrew Bible. Yâthar occurs for the first time in the biblical text in Genesis 30:36, where it is stated that “Jacob fed the rest of Laban’s flocks.” This statement reflects the word’s frequent use to show separation from a primary group. Thus, Jacob “was left alone” (Genesis 32:24) when his family and flocks went on beyond the brook Jabbok.VED-OT Left, Remain.3

Sometimes the word indicates survivors, as in 2 Samuel 9:1: “Is there yet any that is left of the house of Saul …?” The remnant idea is reflected in Ezekiel 6:8: “Yet will I leave a remnant, that ye may have some that shall escape the sword.…”VED-OT Left, Remain.4

B. Noun. VED-OT Left, Remain.5

Yether (יֶתֶר, Strong's #3499), “remainder; excess.” This noun occurs nearly 100 times. As “remainder, excess,” it is used especially in the sense of a lesser number or quality as compared to something of primary importance. So, yether is used to refer to “the rest of the vessels” left in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (Jeremiah 27:19-20, RSV), and the men who were left after Joab had assigned his picked men in the battle lines (2 Samuel 10:10). Occasionally yether is used to indicate “excess” in a negative way, so the literal “lip of excess” has the meaning of “false speech” (Proverbs 17:7, RSV).VED-OT Left, Remain.6

A few times this noun implies “superiority” or “pre-eminence,” as in Genesis 49:3, where Jacob describes his son Reuben as being “preeminent in pride and pre-eminent in power” (RSV). The name of Jethro, Moses’ father-inlaw, is derived from this word.VED-OT Left, Remain.7

Lie

A. Verb. VED-OT Lie.2

Shâkab (שָׁכַב, Strong's #7901), “to lie down, lie, have sexual intercourse with.” This word also occurs in Ugaritic, Akkadian, Ethiopic, post-biblical Aramaic, and post-biblical Hebrew. Biblical Hebrew attests it about 160 times and in all periods.VED-OT Lie.3

Basically this verb signifies a person’s lying down—though in Job 30:17 and Ecclesiastes 2:23 it refers to something other than a human being. Shâkab is used of the state of reclining as opposed to sitting: “And every thing that she lieth upon in her [menstruation] shall be unclean: every thing also that she sitteth upon …” (Leviticus 15:20). This general sense appears in several nuances. First, there is the meaning “to lie down to rest.” Elisha “came thither, and he turned into the chamber [which the Shunammite had prepared for his use], and lay there” (2 Kings 4:11). Job remarks that his gnawing pains “take no rest” (Job 30:17; cf. Ecclesiastes 2:23).VED-OT Lie.4

Shâkab can also be used of lying down on a bed, for example, when one is sick. Jonadab told Amnon: “Lay thee down on thy bed, and make thyself [pretend to be] sick …” (2 Samuel 13:5). The word can be used as an equivalent of the phrase “to go to bed”: “But before they [Lot’s visitors] lay down, the men of the city, even the men of Sodom, compassed the house round …” (Genesis 19:4—the first occurrence of the verb). Shâkab also signifies “lying down asleep.” The Lord told Jacob: “… The land whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy seed” (Genesis 28:13).VED-OT Lie.5

In Exodus 22:26-27 the verb denotes the act of sleeping more than the lying down: “If thou at all take thy neighbor’s raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down … [In what else] shall he sleep?”VED-OT Lie.6

Shâkab can also be used to mean “lodge” and thus refers to sleeping and eating. Israel’s spies lodged with Rahab: “And they went, and came into a harlot’s house, named Rahab, and lodged there” (Joshua 2:1; cf. 2 Kings 4:11).VED-OT Lie.7

This verb can mean “to lie down” in a figurative sense of to be humbled or to be robbed of power. The trees of Lebanon are personified and say concerning the king of Babylon: “Since thou art laid down, no feller [tree cutter] is come up against us” (Isaiah 14:8).VED-OT Lie.8

Used reflexively, shâkab means “to humble oneself, to submit oneself”: “We lie down in our shame …” (Jeremiah 3:25).VED-OT Lie.9

Another special nuance is “to put something on its side”: “Who can number the clouds in wisdom? Or who can [tip] the bottles of heaven, when the dust groweth into hardness, and the clods cleave fast together?” (Job 38:37-38).VED-OT Lie.10

A second emphasis of shâkab is “to die,” to lie down in death. Jacob instructed his sons as follows: “But I will lie with my fathers, and thou shalt carry me out of Egypt, and bury me in their burying place” (Genesis 47:30). This phrase (“lie down with one’s fathers”) does not necessarily refer to being buried or to dying an honorable death (cf. 1 Kings 22:40) but is a synonym for a human’s dying. (It is never used of animals or inanimate things.) The idea is that when one dies he no longer stands upright. Therefore, to “lie with one’s fathers” parallels the concept of “lying down” in death. Shâkab, as 1 Kings 22:40 suggests, can refer to the state of being dead (“so Ahab slept with his fathers”), since v. 37 already reports that he had died and was buried in Samaria. The verb used by itself may mean “to die,” or “to lie dead”; cf. “At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay [dead]: at her feet he bowed, he fell: where he bowed, there he fell down dead” (Judges 5:27).VED-OT Lie.11

A third major use of shâkab is “to have sexual relations with.” The first occurrence of this use is in Genesis 19:32, where Lot’s daughters say: “Come, let us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father.” Even when a physical “lying down” is not necessarily in view, the word is used of having sexual relations: “Whosoever lieth with a beast shall surely be put to death” (Exodus 22:19). The word is also used of homosexual activities (Leviticus 18:22).VED-OT Lie.12

B. Nouns. VED-OT Lie.13

Mishkâb (מִשְׁכָּב, Strong's #4904), “place to lie; couch; bed; act of lying.” This noun appears 46 times in the Old Testament. In Genesis 49:4 mishkâb is used to mean a “place to lie” or “bed”: “… because thou wentest up to thy father’s bed.…” The word refers to the “act of lying” in Numbers 31:17: “… kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him.” Shekabah means “layer of dew.” In one of its 9 appearances, sekabah refers to a “layer of dew”: “… and in the morning the dew lay round about the host” (Exodus 16:13).
Shekobet refers to “copulation.” This noun occurs rarely (4 times), as in Leviticus 18:20: “Moreover thou shalt not lie carnally with thy neighbor’s wife, to defile thyself with her.”VED-OT Lie.14

Light

A. Verb. VED-OT Light.2

'Ôr (אוֹר, Strong's #216), “to become light, become lighted up (of daybreak), give light, cause light to shine.” This verb is found also in Akkadian and Canaanite. The Akkadian word urru means “light,” but generally “day.”VED-OT Light.3

'Ôr means “to become light” in Genesis 44:3: “As soon as the morning was light, the men were sent away, they and their asses.” The word means “to give light” in Numbers 8:2: “… the seven lamps shall give light over against the candlestick.”VED-OT Light.4

B. Nouns.VED-OT Light.5

'Ôr (אוֹר, Strong's #216), “light.” This noun appears about 120 times and is clearly a poetic term.VED-OT Light.6

The first occurrence of 'ôr is in the Creation account: “And God said, Let there be light: and there was light” (Genesis 1:3). Here “light” is the opposite of “darkness.” The opposition of “light” and “darkness” is not a unique phenomenon. It occurs frequently as a literary device: “Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter!” (Isaiah 5:20); and “In that day they shall roar against them like the roaring of the sea: and if one look unto the land, behold darkness and sorrow, and the light is darkened in the heavens thereof” (Isaiah 5:30). In Hebrew various antonyms of  are used in parallel constructions: “The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined” (Isaiah 9:2).VED-OT Light.7

The basic meaning of 'ôr is “daylight” (cf. Genesis 1:3). In the Hebrew mind the “day” began at the rising of the sun: “And he shall be as the light of the morning, when the sun riseth, even a morning without clouds; as the tender grass springeth out of the earth by clear shining after rain” (2 Samuel 23:4). The “light” given by the heavenly bodies was also known as 'ôr: “Moreover the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold, as the light of seven days, in the day that the Lord bindeth up the breach of his people, and healeth the stroke of their wound” (Isaiah 30:26).VED-OT Light.8

In the metaphorical use 'ôr signifies life over against death: “For thou hast delivered my soul from death: wilt not thou deliver my feet from falling, that I may walk before God in the light of the living?” (Psalms 56:13). To walk in the “light” of the face of a superior (Proverbs 16:15), or of God (Psalms 89:15), is an expression of a joyful, blessed life in which the quality of life is enhanced. The believer is assured of God’s “light,” even in a period of difficulty; cf. “Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy: when I fall, I shall arise; when I sit in darkness, the Lord shall be a light unto me” (Micah 7:8; cf. Psalms 23:4).VED-OT Light.9

In the Septuagint 'ôr has many translations, of which phos (“light”) is most frequent.VED-OT Light.10

The noun ‘ur means “shine; light-giving.” This word occurs infrequently, once in Isaiah 50:11: “Behold, all ye that kindle a fire, that compass yourselves about with sparks: walk in the light [‘ur] of your fire, and in the sparks that ye have kindled.”VED-OT Light.11

‘Orah refers to “light.” This noun means “light” in Psalms 139:12: “Yea, the darkness hideth not from thee; but the night shineth as the day: the darkness and the light are both alike to thee.”VED-OT Light.12

Ma’or also means “light.” This noun appears about 20 times. Ma’or occurs more than once in Genesis 1:16: “And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.”VED-OT Light.13

Likeness

A. Verb.VED-OT Likeness.2

Dâmâh (דָּמָה, Strong's #1819), “to be like, resemble, be or act like, liken or compare, devise, balance or ponder.” This verb appears in biblical Hebrew about 28 times. Cognates of this word appear in biblical Aramaic, Akkadian, and Arabic. Dâmâh means “to be like” in Psalms 102:6: “I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert.”VED-OT Likeness.3

B. Noun. VED-OT Likeness.4

Demûth (דְּמוּת, Strong's #1823), “likeness; shape; figure; form; pattern.” All but 5 of the 25 appearances of this word are in poetical or prophetical books of the Bible.VED-OT Likeness.5

First, the word means “pattern,” in the sense of the specifications from which an actual item is made: “Now King Ahaz went to Damascus … and saw the altar which was at Damascus; and King Ahaz sent to Urijah the priest the pattern of the altar and its model, according to all its workmanship” (2 Kings 16:10, NASB).VED-OT Likeness.6

Second, demûth means “shape” or “form,” the thing(s) made after a given pattern. In 2 Chronicles 4:3 the word represents the “shape” of a bronze statue: “And under it was the similtude of oxen, which did compass it round about: ten in a cubit, compassing the sea round about.” In such passages demûth means more than just “shape” in general; it indicates the “shape” in particular. In Ezekiel 1:10, for example, the word represents the “form” or “likeness” of the faces of the living creatures Ezekiel describes. In Ezekiel 1:26 the word refers to what something seemed to be rather than what it was: “And above the firmament that was over their heads was the likeness of a throne.…”VED-OT Likeness.7

Third, demûth signifies the original after which a thing is patterned: “To whom then will ye liken God? or what likeness will ye compare unto him?” (Isaiah 40:18). This significance is in its first biblical appearance: “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness …” (Genesis 1:26).VED-OT Likeness.8

Fourth, in Psalms 58:4 the word appears to function merely to extend the form but not the meaning of the preposition ke: “Their poison is like the poison of a serpent.…”VED-OT Likeness.9

Lion

'Ărı̂y (אַרְיֵה, Strong's #738), “lion.” This apparently Aramaic loan word finds a cognate only in Aramaic. Occurring in all periods of biblical Hebrew, it is attested 83 times. The word represents a “full-grown lion.”VED-OT Lion.2

This word should be compared to: (1) gur (Genesis 49:9), a suckling lion; (2) shachal (Hosea 5:14), a young lion which no longer is a suckling; and (3) kepir (Judges 14:5), a young lion which no longer is a suckling and which hunts for its food independently.VED-OT Lion.3

The “lion” was a much-feared beast (Amos 3:12) found mostly in the Trans-jordan (Jeremiah 49:19) and in the mountainous areas (Song of Song of Solomon 4:8). The various characteristics of the “lion” make it a frequent figure of strength and power (Judges 14:18), of plundering (Genesis 49:9), and of malicious scheming (Psalms 10:9).VED-OT Lion.4

Lip

Śâphâh (שֶׂפֶת, Strong's #8193), “lip; edge.” This Hebrew word is related to cognate languages where a similar word signifies “lip” or “edge” (cf. Akkadian captu). Śâphâh has undergone little change in the history of the Hebrew language. It occurs about 175 times in the Old Testament, mainly in the poetic literature. The word is most frequent in the prophetical books, except for Isaiah (13 times) and Ezekiel (7 times).VED-OT Lip.2

“Lip” is first a part of the body. Isaiah’s “lips” were ritually cleansed by the burning coal (Isaiah 6:7). The compression of the “lips” was an indication of evil thoughts or motivation: “He shutteth his eyes to devise froward things: moving his lips he bringeth evil to pass” (Proverbs 16:30).VED-OT Lip.3

The use of “lip” as an organ of speech is more frequent. With the lips, or human speech, one may flatter (Psalms 12:3), lie (Psalms 31:18), speak mischief (Psalms 140:9), and speak perversity (Proverbs 4:24). On the other hand, the “lip” (speech) of the people of God is described as not sinful (Job 2:10), rejoicing (Job 8:21), prayerful (Psalms 17:1), God’s word (Psalms 119:13), truthful (Proverbs 12:19), wise (Proverbs 14:7; 15:7), righteous (Proverbs 16:13), and excellent (Proverbs 17:7). In all these examples “the lip” signifies a manner of speech; cf. “Excellent speech becometh not a fool: much less do lying lips a prince” (Proverbs 17:7). The use of śâphâh is similar to that of |lashon“tongue,” in that both words denote speech and also human language. Śâphâh with the meaning of human language occurs in the phrase “the language of Canaan” (Isaiah 19:18). Isaiah described foreign language as “deeper speech than thou canst perceive” (literally, “depths of lip”; 33:19).VED-OT Lip.4

The metaphorical use of śâphâh (“edge”) appears mainly in the narrative literature. The word denotes the shore of a sea (Genesis 22:17) or of a river (Genesis 41:3), or the edge of material (Exodus 26:4), or the brim of a vessel (1 Kings 7:23).VED-OT Lip.5

The Septuagint translation is cheilos (“lip; shore; bank”); and the KJV has these translations: “lip; bank; brim; edge; language; shore; and speech.”VED-OT Lip.6

Live

A. Verb. VED-OT Live.2

Châyâh (חָיָה, Strong's #2421), “to live.” This verb, which has cognates in most other Semitic languages (except Akkadian), occurs 284 times in biblical Hebrew and in all periods. In the ground stem this verb connotes “having life”: “And Adam lived a hundred and thirty years …” (Genesis 5:3). A similar meaning appears in Numbers 14:38 and Joshua 9:21.VED-OT Live.3

The intensive form of châyâh means “to preserve alive”: “… Two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee …” (Genesis 6:19). This word may also mean “to bring to life” or “to cause to live”: “… I dwell … with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit, to revive the spirit of the humble, and to revive the heart of the contrite ones” (Isaiah 57:15).VED-OT Live.4

“To live” is more than physical existence. According to Deuteronomy 8:3, “man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the Lord doth man live.” Moses said to Israel: “… Love the Lord thy God … that thou mayest live and multiply” (Deuteronomy 30:16).VED-OT Live.5

B. Noun.VED-OT Live.6

Chay (חַי, Strong's #2416), “living thing; life.” The use of this word occurs only in the oath formula “as X lives,” literally, “by the life of X”: “And he said, They were my brethren, even the sons of my mother: as the Lord liveth, if ye had saved them alive, I would not slay you” (Judges 8:19). This formula summons the power of a superior to sanction the statement asserted. In Judges 8:19 God is the witness to Gideon’s pledge to kill his enemies and this statement that they brought the penalty on themselves. A similar use appears in Genesis 42:15 except that the power summoned is Pharaoh’s: “Hereby ye shall be proved: By the life of Pharaoh ye shall not go forth hence, except your youngest brother come hither.” In 1 Samuel 1:26 Hannah employs a similar phrase summoning Eli himself to attest the truthfulness of her statement: “And she said, Oh my lord, as thy soul liveth, my lord, I am the woman that stood by thee here, praying unto the Lord.” Only God swears by His own power: “And the Lord said, I have pardoned according to thy word: But as truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the Lord” (Numbers 14:20-21).VED-OT Live.7

The feminine form of the word, chayyah, means “living being” and is especially used of animals. When so used, it usually distinguishes wild and undomesticated from domesticated animals; the word connotes that the animals described are untamed: “And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark …” (Genesis 8:1). Job 37:8 uses chayyah of rapacious beasts: “Then the beasts go into dens, and remain in their places.” This same word may also connote “evil beast”: “Come now therefore, and let us slay him, and cast him into some pit, and we will say, Some evil beast hath devoured him …” (Genesis 37:20). In another nuance the word describes land animals as distinct from birds and fish: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Genesis 1:28).VED-OT Live.8

Infrequently chayyah represents a domesticated animal: “And the cities shall they have to dwell in; and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts” (Numbers 35:3). Sometimes this word is used of “living beings” in general: “Also out of the midst thereof came the likeness of four living creatures: (Ezekiel 1:5). In such passages the word is synonymous with the Hebrew word nepesh.VED-OT Live.9

The plural of the noun chay, chayyim, is a general word for the state of living as opposed to that of death. This meaning is in Deuteronomy 30:15: “See, I have set before thee this day life and good, and death and evil.” Notice also Genesis 27:46: “And Rebekah said to Isaac, I am weary of my life because of the daughters of Heth.…” In a second nuance the plural signifies “lifetime,” or the days of one’s life: “… And dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life” (Genesis 3:14). The phrase “the years of one’s life” represents the same idea: “And Sarah was a hundred and seven and twenty years old: these were the years of the life of Sarah” (Genesis 23:1). The “breath of life” in Genesis 2:7 is the breath that brings “life”: “And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul” (cf. Genesis 6:17).VED-OT Live.10

The “tree of life” is the tree which gives one eternal, everlasting “life.” Therefore, it is the tree whose fruit brings “life”: “And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden …” (Genesis 2:9). In another nuance this word suggests a special quality of “life,” life as a special gift from God (a gift of salvation): “I call heaven and earth to record this day against you, that I have set before you life and death, blessing and cursing: therefore choose life, that both thou and thy seed may live” (Deuteronomy 30:19). The plural of the word can represent “persons who are alive,” or living persons: “And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed” (Numbers 16:48).VED-OT Live.11

C. Adjective.VED-OT Live.12

Chay (חַי, Strong's #2416), “alive; living.” This word has cognates in Ugaritic, Canaanite, Phoenician, Punic, and Aramaic. It occurs about 481 times in biblical Hebrew and in all periods.VED-OT Live.13

The word chay is used both as an adjective and as a noun. Used adjectivally it modifies men, animals, and God, but never plants. In Genesis 2:7 the word used with the noun nepech (“soul, person, being”) means a “living” person: “And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.” The same two words are used in Genesis 1:21 but with a slightly different meaning: “And God created … every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind.…” Here a living nepesh (“creature”) is an animal. Deuteronomy 5:26 refers to God as the “living” God, distinguishing Him from the lifeless gods/idols of the heathen.VED-OT Live.14

In a related nuance chay describes flesh (animal meat or human flesh) under the skin, or “raw flesh.” In Leviticus 13:10 one reads that leprosy involved seeing quick (alive), raw (chay) flesh: “And the priest shall see him: and, behold, if the rising be white in the skin, and it have turned the hair white, and there be quick raw flesh in the rising.…” The same words (bashar chay) are applied to dead, raw (skinned) animal flesh: “Give flesh to roast for the priest; for he will not have [boiled] flesh of thee, but raw” (1 Samuel 2:15).VED-OT Live.15

Applied to liquids, chay means “running”; it is used metaphorically describing something that moves: “And Isaac’s servants digged in the valley, and found there a well of springing water” (Genesis 26:19). In Jeremiah 2:13 the NASB translates “living” waters, or waters that give life (cf. Jeremiah 17:13; Zechariah 14:8). The Song of Solomon uses the word in a figure of speech describing one’s wife; she is “a well of living waters” (4:15). The emphasis is not on the fact that the water flows but on its freshness; it is not stagnant, and therefore is refreshing and pleasant when consumed.VED-OT Live.16

Load

Maśśâ' (מַשָּׂא, Strong's #4853), “load; burden; tribute; delight.” The 43 occurrences of this word are scattered throughout the periods of biblical Hebrew.VED-OT Load.2

The word means that which is borne by a man, an ass, a mule, or a camel: “If thou see the ass of him that hateth thee lying under his burden, and wouldest forbear to help him …” (Exodus 23:5—the first occurrence). A “load” may be hung on a peg (Isaiah 22:25). This word is used figuratively of spiritual “loads” one is carrying: “For mine iniquities are gone over mine head: as a heavy burden they are too heavy for me” (Psalms 38:4).VED-OT Load.3

Maśśâ' means “burden” in the sense of something burdensome, a hardship. Moses asked God: “… Wherefore have I not found favor in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me?” (Numbers 11:11).VED-OT Load.4

Once the word represents that which is borne to a lord, a “tribute”: “Also some of the Philistines brought Jehoshaphat presents, and tribute silver …” (2 Chronicles 17:11).VED-OT Load.5

In Ezekiel 24:25 maśśâ' bears a unique meaning: “Will it not be on the day when I take from them their stronghold, the joy of their pride, the desire of their eyes, and their heart’s delight [or, the longing of their soul], their sons and their daughters … (NASB).VED-OT Load.6

Maśśâ' (מַשָּׂא, Strong's #4853), “utterance; oracle.” This noun, closely related to the above noun, is used 21 times. Maśśâ' means “utterance” or “oracle”: “For remember, when you and I rode side by side behind Ahab his father, how the Lord uttered this oracle against him” (2 Kings 9:25, RSV). In Jeremiah 23:33-38 the word appears to connote both a burden and an oracle.VED-OT Load.7

Look

Nâbaṭ (נָבַט, Strong's #5027), “to look, regard, behold.” This verb is found in both ancient and modern Hebrew. It occurs approximately 70 times in the Old Testament. The first use of this term is in Genesis 15:5, where it is used in the sense of “take a good look,” as God commands Abraham: “Look now toward heaven, and [number] the stars.…”VED-OT Look.2

While nâbaṭ is commonly used of physical “looking” (Exodus 3:6), the word is frequently used in a figurative sense to mean a spiritual and inner apprehension. Thus, Samuel is told by God: “Look not on his countenance …” (1 Samuel 16:7) as he searched for a king among Jesse’s sons. The sense of “consider” (with insight) is expressed in Isaiah 51:1-2: “… Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn.… Look unto Abraham your father.…” “Pay attention to” seems to be the meaning in Isaiah 5:12: “… they regard not the work of the Lord.…”VED-OT Look.3

Loose Conduct

A. Noun. VED-OT Loose Conduct.2

Zimmâh (זַמָּה, 2154), “loose conduct; lewdness.” The 28 occurrences of this noun are all in legal and poetical books of the Bible, except for a single occurrence in Judges. This noun signifies “loose or infamous conduct” and is used most often with regard to illicit sexual conduct: “Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of a woman and her daughter, … or her daughter’s daughter, to uncover her nakedness; for they are her near kinswomen: it is wickedness” (Leviticus 18:17—the first occurrence). Rejection of God’s law or spiritual adultery may be represented by zimmâh (Psalms 119:150; cf. Ezekiel 16:12-28). A plan or scheme identified by the word is, therefore, a “harlotrous” plan (Psalms 26:10).VED-OT Loose Conduct.3

Mezimmâh (מְזִמָּה, Strong's #4209), “purpose; evil device; evil thoughts; discretion.” This noun occurs 19 times. The word means “purpose” in Job 42:2: “I know that thou canst do all things, and that no purpose of time can be thwarted” (RSV). Mezimmâh refers to “evil device” in Jeremiah 11:15: “What hath my beloved to do in mine house, seeing she hath wrought lewdness with many.…” In Job 21:27 the word is used to mean “evil thoughts,” and in Proverbs 1:4 the word is used for “discretion.”VED-OT Loose Conduct.4

B. Verb. VED-OT Loose Conduct.5

Zâmam (זָמַם, Strong's #2161), “to ponder, to cogitate.” The noun mezimmah is derived from this verb that occurs 13 times. In Zechariah 8:14-15 the word appears to carry the sense of “to ponder”: “For thus saith the Lord of hosts; As I thought to punish you, when your fathers provoked me to wrath … and I repented not: So again have I thought in these days to do well unto Jerusalem and to the house of Judah: fear ye not.”VED-OT Loose Conduct.6

Lord

'Âdôn (אָדֹן, Strong's #113), or 'Âdônay (אָדֹן, Strong's #113), “lord; master; Lord.” Cognates of this word appear in Ugaritic and Phoenician. The form 'âdôn appears 334 times, while the form 'âdônay (used exclusively as a divine name) appears 439 times.VED-OT Lord.2

Basically, 'âdôn means “lord” or “master.” It is distinguished from the Hebrew word ba’al, which signifies “possessor” or “owner.” 'Âdôn basically describes the one who occupies the position of a “master” or “lord” over a slave or servant: “And the servant put his hand under the thigh of Abraham his master …” (Genesis 24:9). It is used of kings and their most powerful aides. Joseph told his brothers: “So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God: and he hath made me a father [i.e., an adviser] to Pharaoh, and lord of all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of Egypt” (Genesis 45:8; cf. 42:30). Only once is this word used in the sense of “owner” or “possessor” (1 Kings 16:24).VED-OT Lord.3

'Âdôn is often used as a term of polite address. In some cases, the one so named really occupies a position of authority. In Genesis 18:12 (the first occurrence) Sarah called Abraham her “lord.” On the other hand, this may be a purely honorary title by which the speaker intends to indicate his submission to the one so addressed. Jacob instructed his slaves to speak to “my lord Esau” (Genesis 32:18); i.e., Jacob called his brother Esau “lord.” In places where the speaker is addressing someone calling him “lord,” the word virtually means “you.”VED-OT Lord.4

When applied to God, âdôn is used in several senses. It signifies His position as the one who has authority (like a master) over His people to reward the obedient and punish the disobedient: “Ephraim provoked him to anger most bitterly: therefore shall he leave his blood upon him, and his reproach shall his Lord return unto him” (Hosea 12:14). In such contexts God is conceived as a Being who is sovereign ruler and almighty master. The word is often a title of respect, a term of direct address usually assuming a specific concrete lord-vassal or master-servant relationship (Psalms 8:1). In some cases the word appears to be a title suggesting God’s relationship to and position over Israel: “Three times in the year all thy males shall appear before the Lord God” (Exodus 23:17). In such contexts âdôn is a formal divine name and should probably be transliterated if the proper emphasis is to be retained. In the form âdônay the word means “Lord” par excellence or “Lord over all,” even as it sometimes does in the form âdôn (cf. Deuteronomy 10:17, where God is called the “God of gods, and Lord of lords”; Joshua 3:11, where He is called the “Lord of all the earth”).VED-OT Lord.5

The word âdônay appears in Genesis 15:2: “And Abram said, Lord God, what wilt thou give me, seeing I go childless,.…” This word frequently appears in Psalms (Psalms 68:17; 86:3) and Isaiah (Isaiah 29:13; 40:10).VED-OT Lord.6

Yehôvâh (יהוה, Strong's #3068), “Lord.” The Tetragrammaton YHWH appears without its own vowels, and its exact pronunciation is debated (Jehovah, Yehovah, Jahweh, Yahweh). The Hebrew text does insert the vowels for âdônay, and Jewish students and scholars read âdônay whenever they see the Tetragrammaton. This use of the word occurs 6,828 times. The word appears in every period of biblical Hebrew.VED-OT Lord.7

The divine name YHWH appears only in the Bible. Its precise meaning is much debated. God chose it as His personal name by which He related specifically to His chosen or covenant people. Its first appearance in the biblical record is Genesis 2:4: “These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the Lord God made the earth and the heavens.” Apparently Adam knew Him by this personal or covenantal name from the beginning, since Seth both called his son Enosh (i.e., man as a weak and dependent creature) and began (along with all other pious persons) to call upon (formally worship) the name of YHWH, “the Lord” (Genesis 4:26). The covenant found a fuller expression and application when God revealed Himself to Abraham (Genesis 12:8), promising redemption in the form of national existence. This promise became reality through Moses, to whom God explained that He was not only the “God who exists” but the “God who effects His will”: “Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, The Lord [YHWH] God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath sent me unto you: this is my name for ever, and this is my memorial unto all generations. Go, and gather the elders of Israel together, and say unto them, The Lord [YHWH] God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob, appeared unto me, saying, I have surely visited you, and seen that which is done to you in Egypt: And I have said, I will bring you up out of the affliction of Egypt unto the land of the Canaanites …” (Exodus 3:15-17). So God explained the meaning of “I am who I am” (Exodus 3:14). He spoke to the fathers as YHWH, but the promised deliverance and, therefore, the fuller significance or experienced meaning of His name were unknown to them (Exodus 6:2-8).VED-OT Lord.8

Lot

Gôrâl (גֹּרָל, Strong's #1486), “lot.” This word is attested 77 times and in all periods of the language (if a traditional view of the formation of the canon is accepted).VED-OT Lot.2

Gôrâl represents the “lot” which was cast to discover the will of God in a given situation: “And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for the scapegoat” (Leviticus 16:8—the first occurrence). Exactly what casting the “lot” involved is not known.VED-OT Lot.3

Since the land of Palestine was allocated among the tribes by the casting of the “lot,” these allotments came to be known as their lots: “This then was the lot of the tribe of the children of Judah by their families; even to the border of Edom …” (Joshua 15:1).VED-OT Lot.4

In an extended use the word gôrâl represents the idea “fate” or “destiny”: “And behold at eveningtide trouble; and before the morning he is not. This is the portion of them that spoil us, and the lot of them that rob us” (Isaiah 17:14). Since God is viewed as controlling all things absolutely, the result of the casting of the “lot” is divinely controlled: “The lot is cast into the lap; but the whole disposing thereof is of the Lord” (Proverbs 16:33). Thus, providence (divine control of history) is frequently figured as one’s “lot.”VED-OT Lot.5

Love

A. Verb. VED-OT Love.2

'Âhab (אַהֵב, Strong's #157), or 'Âhêb (אַהֵב, Strong's #157), “to love; like.” This verb occurs in Moabite and Ugaritic. It appears in all periods of Hebrew and around 250 times in the Bible.VED-OT Love.3

Basically this verb is equivalent to the English “to love” in the sense of having a strong emotional attachment to and desire either to possess or to be in the presence of the object. First, the word refers to the love a man has for a woman and a woman for a man. Such love is rooted in sexual desire, although as a rule it is desire within the bounds of lawful relationships: “And Isaac brought her into his mother Sarah’s tent, and took Rebekah, and she became his wife; and he loved her …” (Genesis 24:67). This word may refer to an erotic but legal love outside marriage. Such an emotion may be a desire to marry and care for the object of that love, as in the case of Shechem’s love for Dinah (Genesis 34:3). In a very few instances 'âhab (or 'âhêb) may signify no more than pure lust—an inordinate desire to have sexual relations with its object (cf. 2 Samuel 13:1). Marriage may be consummated without the presence of love for one’s marriage partner (Genesis 29:30).VED-OT Love.4

'Âhab (or 'âhêb) seldom refers to making love (usually this is represented yada’, “to know,” or by shakab, “to lie with”). The word does seem to have this added meaning, however, in 1 Kings 11:1: “But King Solomon loved many strange women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh …” (cf. Jeremiah 2:25). Hosea appears to use this nuance when he writes that God told him to “go yet, love a woman beloved of her friend, yet an adulteress …” (3:1). This is the predominant meaning of the verb when it appears in the causative stem (as a participle). In every instance except one (Zechariah 13:6) 'âhab (or 'âhêb) signifies those with whom one has made or intends to make love: “Go up to Lebanon, and cry; and lift up thy voice in Bashan, and cry from the passages: for all thy lovers are destroyed” (Jeremiah 22:20; cf. Ezekiel 16:33). 'Âhab (or 'âhêb) is also used of the love between parents and their children. In its first biblical appearance, the word represents Abraham’s special attachment to his son Isaac: “And he said, Take now thy son, thine only son Isaac, whom thou lovest …” (Genesis 22:2). 'Âhab (or 'âhêb) may refer to the family love experienced by a daughter-in-law toward her mother-in-law (Ruth 4:15). This kind of love is also represented by the word racham 'Âhab (or 'âhêb) sometimes depicts a special strong attachment a servant may have toward a master under whose dominance he wishes to remain: “And if the servant shall plainly say, I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out free …” (Exodus 21:5). Perhaps there is an overtone here of family love; he “loves” his master as a son “loves” his father (cf. Deuteronomy 15:16). This emphasis may be in 1 Samuel 16:21, where we read that Saul “loved [David] greatly.” Israel came “to love” and deeply admire David so that they watched his every move with admiration (1 Samuel 18:16).VED-OT Love.5

A special use of this word relates to an especially close attachment of friends: “… The soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his own soul” (1 Samuel 18:1). In Leviticus 19:18: “… Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself..” (cf. Leviticus 19:34; Deuteronomy 10:19) 'âhab (or 'âhêb) signifies this brotherly or friendly kind of love. The word suggests, furthermore, that one seek to relate to his brother and all men according to what is specified in the law structure God gave to Israel. This was to be the normal state of affairs between men.VED-OT Love.6

This verb is used politically to describe the loyalty of a vassal or a subordinate to his lord— so Hiram of Tyre “loved” David in the sense that he was completely loyal (1 Kings 5:1).VED-OT Love.7

The strong emotional attachment and desire suggested by 'âhab (or 'âhêb) may also be fixed on objects, circumstances, actions, and relationships.VED-OT Love.8

B. Noun. VED-OT Love.9

'Ahăbâh (אַהֲבָה, Strong's #160), “love.” This word appears about 55 times, and it represents several kinds of “love.” The first biblical occurrence of 'ahăbâh is in Genesis 29:20; there the word deals with the “love” between man and wife as a general concept. In Hosea 3:1 the word is used of “love” as a sexual activity. 'Ahăbâh means “love” between friends in 1 Samuel 18:3: “Then Jonathan and David made a covenant because he loved him as his own soul.” The word refers to Solomon’s “love” in 1 Kings 11:2 and to God’s “love” in Deuteronomy 7:8.VED-OT Love.10

C. Participle. VED-OT Love.11

'Âhab (אַהֵב, Strong's #157), “friend.” This word used as a participle may mean “friend”: “… The rich hath many friends” (Proverbs 14:20).VED-OT Love.12

Loving-Kindness

A. Noun. VED-OT Loving-Kindness.2

Chêsêd (חֶסֶד, Strong's #2617), “loving-kindness; steadfast love; grace; mercy; faithfulness; goodness; devotion.” This word is used 240 times in the Old Testament, and is especially frequent in the Psalter. The term is one of the most important in the vocabulary of Old Testament theology and ethics.VED-OT Loving-Kindness.3

The Septuagint nearly always renders chêsêd with eleos (“mercy”), and that usage is reflected in the New Testament. Modern translations, in contrast, generally prefer renditions close to the word “grace.” KJV usually has “mercy,” although “lovingkindness” (following Coverdale), “favor,” and other translations also occur. RSV generally prefers “steadfast love.” NIV often offers simply “love.”VED-OT Loving-Kindness.4

In general, one may identify three basic meanings of the word, which always interact: “strength,” “steadfastness,” and “love.” Any understanding of the word that fails to suggest all three inevitably loses some of its richness. “Love” by itself easily becomes sentimentalized or universalized apart from the covenant. Yet “strength” or “steadfastness” suggests only the fulfillment of a legal or other obligation.VED-OT Loving-Kindness.5

The word refers primarily to mutual and reciprocal rights and obligations between the parties of a relationship (especially Yahweh and Israel). But chêsêd is not only a matter of obligation; it is also of generosity. It is not only a matter of loyalty, but also of mercy. The weaker party seeks the protection and blessing of the patron and protector, but he may not lay absolute claim to it. The stronger party remains committed to his promise, but retains his freedom, especially with regard to the manner in which he will implement those promises. Chêsêd implies personal involvement and commitment in a relationship beyond the rule of law.VED-OT Loving-Kindness.6

Marital love is often related to chêsêd Marriage certainly is a legal matter, and there are legal sanctions for infractions. Yet the relationship, if sound, far transcends mere legalities. The prophet Hosea applies the analogy to Yahweh’s chêsêd to Israel within the covenant (e.g., 2:21). Hence, “devotion” is sometimes the single English word best capable of capturing the nuance of the original. The RSV attempts to bring this out by its translation, “steadfast love.” Hebrew writers often underscored the element of steadfastness (or strength) by pairing chêsêd with ‘emet (“truth, reliability”) and ‘emunah (“faithfulness”).VED-OT Loving-Kindness.7

Biblical usage frequently speaks of someone “doing,” “showing,” or “keeping” chêsêd. The concrete content of the word is especially evident when it is used in the plural. God’s “mercies,” “kindnesses,” or “faithfulnesses” are His specific, concrete acts of redemption in fulfillment of His promise. An example appears in Isaiah 55:3: “… And I will make an everlasting covenant with you, even the sure mercies of David.”VED-OT Loving-Kindness.8

Chêsêd has both God and man as its subject. When man is the subject of chêsêd the word usually describes the person’s kindness or loyalty to another; cf. 2 Samuel 9:7: “And David said … I will surely show thee [Mephibosheth] kindness for Jonathan thy father’s sake.…” Only rarely is the term applied explicitly to man’s affection or fidelity toward God; the clearest example is probably Jeremiah 2:2: “Go and cry in the ears of Jerusalem, saying, thus saith the Lord; I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness.…” Man exercises chêsêd toward various units within the community—toward family and relatives, but also to friends, guests, masters, and servants. Chêsêd toward the lowly and needy is often specified. The Bible prominently uses the term chêsêd to summarize and characterize a life of sanctification within, and in response to, the covenant. Thus, Hosea 6:6 states that God desires “mercy [RSV, “steadfast love”] and not sacrifice” (i.e., faithful living in addition to worship). Similarly, Micah 6:8 features chêsêd in the prophets’ summary of biblical ethics: “… and what doth the Lord require of thee, but … to love mercy..?”VED-OT Loving-Kindness.9

Behind all these uses with man as subject, however, stand the repeated references to God’s chêsêd. It is one of His most central characteristics. God’s loving-kindness is offered to His people, who need redemption from sin, enemies, and troubles. A recurrent refrain describing God’s nature is “abounding/plenteous in chêsêd" (Exodus 34:6; Nehemiah 9:17; Psalms 103:8; Jonah 4:2). The entire history of Yahweh’s covenantal relationship with Israel can be summarized in terms of chêsêd. It is the one permanent element in the flux of covenantal history. Even the Creation is the result of God’s chêsêd (Psalms 136:5-9). His love lasts for a “thousand generations” (Deuteronomy 7:9; cf. Deuteronomy 5:10 and Exodus 20:6), indeed “forever” (especially in the refrains of certain psalms, such as Psalms 136).VED-OT Loving-Kindness.10

Words used in synonymous parallelism with chêsêd help to define and explain it. The word most commonly associated with chêsêd is ‘emet (“fidelity; reliability”): “… Let thy loving-kindness [chêsêd] and thy truth [‘emet] continually preserve me.” ‘Emunah with a similar meaning is also common: “He hath remembered his mercy [chêsêd] and his truth [‘emunah] toward the house of Israel.…” This emphasis is especially appropriate when God is the subject, because His chêsêd is stronger and more enduring than man’s. Etymological investigation suggests that chêsêd’s primitive significance may have been “strength” or “permanence.” If so, a puzzling use of chêsêd in Isaiah 40:6 would be explained: “All flesh is grass, and all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field.”VED-OT Loving-Kindness.11

The association of chêsêd with “covenant” keeps it from being misunderstood as mere providence or love for all creatures; it applies primarily to God’s particular love for His chosen and covenanted people. “Covenant” also stresses the reciprocity of the relationship; but since God’s chêsêd is ultimately beyond the covenant, it will not ultimately be abandoned, even when the human partner is unfaithful and must be disciplined (Isaiah 54:8, 10). Since its final triumph and implementation is eschatological, chêsêd can imply the goal and end of all salvation-history (Psalms 85:7, 10; 130:7; Micah 7:20).VED-OT Loving-Kindness.12

The proper noun Hacdiah (1 Chronicles 3:20) is related to chêsêd. The name of Zerubbabel’s son means “Yahweh is faithful/gracious,” a fitting summary of the prophet’s message.VED-OT Loving-Kindness.13

B. Adjective.VED-OT Loving-Kindness.14

Châsı̂yd (חָסִיד, Strong's #2623), “pious; devout; faithful; godly.” The adjective châsı̂yd, derived from chêsêd, is often used to describe the faithful Israelite. God’s chêsêd provides the pattern, model, and strength by which the life of the châsı̂yd is to be directed. One reference to the “godly” man appears in Psalms 12:1: “Help, Lord; for the godly man ceaseth; for the faithful fail from among the children of men.” Usually a suffix or possessive pronoun referring to God is attached to the word, indicating His special attachment to those who pattern their lives after His: “O love the Lord, all ye his saints [literally, “His pious ones”; NASB, “His godly ones”]: for the Lord preserveth the faithful, and plentifully rewardeth the proud doer” (Psalms 31:23).VED-OT Loving-Kindness.15

Following the Greek hosios and Latin sancus, the KJV often renders the word “saint”— which must be understood in the sense of sanctification [dependent upon grace], not moralistically [of native goodness].VED-OT Loving-Kindness.16