Ahi — Allure

Ahi

Ahi - a'-hi ('achi, "my brother," or perhaps a contraction from AHIJAH, which see): (1) A member of the tribe of Gad (1 Chronicles 5:15). (2) A member of the tribe of Asher (1 Chronicles 7:34).ISBE Ahi.2

Ahi or Ah

Ahi or Ah - In proper names ('achi or 'ach "brother"): The usage is practically the same with that of 'abh, 'abhi.ISBE Ahi or Ah.2

See ABI; NAMES, PROPER.ISBE Ahi or Ah.3

Ahiah

Ahiah - a-hi'-a: A variant in the King James Version (1 Samuel 14:3, 18; 1 Kings 4:3; 1 Chronicles 8:7) for AHIJAH, which see. Also in the Revised Version (British and American) (Nehemiah 10:26).ISBE Ahiah.2

Ahiam

Ahiam - a-hi'-am ('achi'am, "mother's brother"): One of David's thirty heroes. He was the son of Sharar (2 Samuel 23:33) or according to 1 Chronicles 11:35 of Sacar, the Hararite.ISBE Ahiam.2

Ahian

Ahian - a-hi'-an ('achyan, "brotherly"): A son of Shemida of the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chronicles 7:19).ISBE Ahian.2

Ahiezer

Ahiezer - a-hi-e'-zer ('achi`ezer, "brother is help"): (1) A son of Ammishaddai, a Danite prince, who acted as representative of his tribe on several occasions. (See Numbers 1:12; 2:25; 66, 71; 10:25.) (2) One of the mighty men or warriors, who joined David at Ziklag when a furtive before Saul (1 Chronicles 12:3).ISBE Ahiezer.2

Ahihud

Ahihud - a-hi'-hud ('achihudh, "brother is majesty"): (1) One of the chief men of the tribe of Asher. He was selected by Moses to help divide the land west of the Jordan (Numbers 34:27). (2) A son of Ehud of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:6-7). The text here is obscure and probably corrupt.ISBE Ahihud.2

Ahijah

Ahijah - a-hi'-ja ('achiyah or 'achiyahu, "brother of Yahweh," "my brother is Yahweh," "Yah is brother." In the King James Version the name sometimes appears as Ahiah):ISBE Ahijah.2

(1) One of the sons of Jerahmeel the great-grandson of Judah (1 Chronicles 2:25).ISBE Ahijah.3

(2) A descendant of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:7).ISBE Ahijah.4

(3) The son of Ahitub, priest in the time of King Saul (1 Samuel 14:3, 18). Either he is the same with Ahimelech, who is mentioned later, or he is the father or brother of Ahimelech. He is introduced to us when Saul has been so long on the throne that his son Jonathan is a man grown and a warrior. He is in attendance upon Saul, evidently as an official priest, "wearing an ephod." When Saul wishes direction from God he asks the priest to bring hither the ark; but then, without waiting for the message, Saul counts the confusion in the Philistine camp a sufficient indication of the will of Providence, and hurries off to the attack. Some copies of the Greek here read "ephod" instead of "ark," but the documentary evidence in favor of that reading is far from decisive. If the Hebrew reading is correct, then the seclusion of the ark, from the time of its return from Philistia to the time of David, was not so absolute as many have supposed.ISBE Ahijah.5

See AHIMELECH, i.ISBE Ahijah.6

(4) One of David's mighty men, according to the list in 1 Chronicles 11:36. The corresponding name in the list in 2 Samuel 23:34 is Eliam the son of Ahithophel the Gilonite.ISBE Ahijah.7

(5) A Levite of David's time who had charge of certain treasures connected with the house of God (1 Chronicles 26:20). The Greek copies presuppose the slightly different text which would give in English "and their brethren," instead of Ahijah. This is accepted by many scholars, and it is at least more plausible than most of the proposed corrections of the Hebrew text by the Greek.ISBE Ahijah.8

(6) Son of Sinsha and brother of Elihoreph (1 Kings 4:3). The two brothers were scribes of Solomon. Can the scribes Ahijah and Shemaiah (1 Chronicles 24:6) be identified with the men of the same names who, later, were known as distinguished prophets? Sinsha is probably the same with Shavsha (1 Chronicles 18:16; compare 2 Samuel 8:17; 20:25), who was scribe under David, the office in this case descending from father to son.ISBE Ahijah.9

(7) The distinguished prophet of Shiloh, who was interested in Jeroboam I. In Solomon's lifetime Ahijah clothed himself with a new robe, met Jeroboam outside Jerusalem, tore the robe into twelve pieces, and gave him ten, in token that he should become king of the ten tribes (1 Kings 11:29-39). Later, when Jeroboam had proved unfaithful to Yahweh, he sent his wife to Ahijah to ask in regard to their sick son. The prophet received her harshly, foretold the death of the son, and threatened the extermination of the house of Jeroboam (1 Kings 14:1-31). The narrative makes the impression that Ahijah was at this time a very old man (1 Kings 14:4). These incidents are differently narrated in the long addition at 1 Kings 12:24 found in some of the Greek copies. In that addition the account of the sick boy precedes that of the rent garment, and both are placed between the account of Jeroboam's return from Egypt and that of the secession of the ten tribes, an order in which it is impossible to think that the events occurred. Further, this addition attributes the incident of the rent garment to Shemaiah and not to Ahijah, and says that Ahijah was 60 years old.ISBE Ahijah.10

Other notices speak of the fulfillment of the threatening prophecies spoken by Ahijah (2 Chronicles 10:15; 1 Kings 12:15; 15:29). In 2 Ch "the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite" is referred to as a source for the history of Solomon (9:29).ISBE Ahijah.11

(8) The father of Baasha king of Israel (1 Kings 15:27, 33; 21:22; 2 Kings 9:9).ISBE Ahijah.12

(9) A Levite of Nehemiah's time, who sealed the covenant (Nehemiah 10:26 the King James Version).ISBE Ahijah.13

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahijah.14

Ahikam

Ahikam - a-hi'-kam ('achiqam, "my brother has risen up"): A prominent man of the time of King Josiah and the following decades (2 Kings 22:12, 14; 25:22; 2 Chronicles 34:20; Jeremiah 26:24; 39:14; 40:5 ff; Jeremiah 41:1 ff; Jeremiah 43:6). He was the son of Shaphan, who very likely is to be identified with Shaphan the scribe, who was at that time so prominent. Ahikam was the father of Gedaliah, whom, on the capture of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar made governor of the land. Ahikam was a member of the deputation sent by Josiah to the prophetess Huldah to consult her concerning the contents of the Book of the Law which had been found. Under Jehoiakim he had sufficient influence to protect Jeremiah from being put to death. On the capture of Jerusalem Nebuchadnezzar committed Jeremiah into the care of Gedaliah. It is clear that both Shaphan and his son, like Jeremiah, belonged to the party which held that the men of Judah were under obligation to keep the oath which they had sworn to the tang of Babylon.ISBE Ahikam.2

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahikam.3

Ahilud

Ahilud - a-hi'-lud ('achiludh, "child's brother," perhaps): The father of Jehoshaphat, who is mentioned as "recorder" in both the earlier and the later lists under David, and in the list under Solomon (2 Samuel 8:16 and 1 Chronicles 18:15; 2 Samuel 20:24; 1 Kings 4:3). In the absence of proof we may assume that the father of Baana, one of Solomon's district superintendents, was the same Ahilud (1 Kings 4:12).ISBE Ahilud.2

Ahimaaz

Ahimaaz - a-hi-ma'-az, a-him'-a-az ('achima`ats, perhaps "my brother is rage," or "brother of rage"):ISBE Ahimaaz.2

(1) Father of Ahinoam the wife of King Saul (1 Samuel 14:50).ISBE Ahimaaz.3

(2) The son of Zadok the high priest (1 Chronicles 6:8-9, 53). With his father he remained loyal to Dared in the rebellions both of Absalom and of Adonijah. With Jonathan the son of Abiathar he carried information to Dared when he fled from Absalom (2 Samuel 15:27, 36; 17, 20). At his own urgent request he carried tidings to David after the death of Absalom (2 Samuel 18:19 ff). He told the king of the victory, and also, through his reluctance to speak, informed him of Absalom's death. By his reluctance and his sympathy he softened a little the message, which the Cushite presently repeated more harshly.ISBE Ahimaaz.4

That Ahimaaz did not succeed his father as high priest has been inferred from the fact that in the Solomon list of heads of departments (1 Kings 4:2) Azariah the son of Zadok is mentioned as priest. It is assumed that this Azariah is the one who appears in the genealogy as the son of Ahimaaz, and that for some reason Ahimaaz was left out of the succession. These inferences are not Justified by the record, though possibly the record does not absolutely disprove them. As the list stands it makes Zadok and Abiathar the high priests. Azariah and Zabud, the son of Nathan (1 Kings 4:2, 5), are spoken of as holding priestly offices of a different kind. Ahimaaz may have died early, or may have followed some other career, but the simple fact is that we do not know.ISBE Ahimaaz.5

(3) Ahimaaz, in Naphtali, was one of Solomon's twelve commissary officers (1 Kings 4:15), who married Basemath the daughter of Solomon. It is not impossible that he was Ahimaaz the son of Zadok, though there is no proof to that effect.ISBE Ahimaaz.6

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahimaaz.7

Ahiman

Ahiman - a-hi'-man ('achiman, perhaps, "brother of fortune," or, "my brother is fortune"):ISBE Ahiman.2

(1) One of the names given as those of the three "children of the Anak" (Numbers 13:22; Joshua 15:14; of Numbers 13:28; 2 Samuel 21:16, 18), or the three "sons of the Anak" (Joshua 15:14; Judges 1:20). The three names (Ahiman, Sheshai, Talmai) also occur together in Judges 1:10. The word Anak in the Hebrew Bible has the definite article except in Numbers 13:33 and Deuteronomy 9:2. Its use is that of a common noun denoting a certain type of man, rather than as the proper name of a person or a clan, though this need not prevent our thinking of the Anakim as a clan or group of clans, who regarded Arba as their founder. The question is raised whether Ahiman and Sheshai and Talmai are to be thought of as persons or as clans. The most natural understanding of the Bible statements is certainly to the effect that they were personal leaders among the Anakim of Kiriath-arba (Hebron). They were smitten and dispossessed by the tribe of Judah, with Caleb for leader.ISBE Ahiman.3

(2) A Levite, one of the gatekeepers of the latest Bible times (1 Chronicles 9:17). He is associated with Akkub and Talmon and their brethren: compare Nehemiah 11:19.ISBE Ahiman.4

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahiman.5

Ahimelech

Ahimelech - a-him'-e-lek ('achimelekh, "brother of a king," or, "my brother is king," or, "king is brother"):ISBE Ahimelech.2

(1) The father of David's high priest Abiathar: son of Ahitub, the son of Phinehas, the son of Eli (1 Samuel 21:1-2, 8; 1 Samuel 22:9-20; 23:6; 30:7). Ahijah the son of Ahitub (1 Samuel 14:3, 18) was either the same person under another name, or was Ahimelech's father or brother. See AHIJAH, 3. Ahimelech is an interesting person, especially because he stands for whatever information we have concerning the priestly office in Israel during the period between Eli and David. Whether the Deuteronomic law for a central sanctuary originated with Moses or not, its provisions were very imperfectly carried out during the times of the Judges. This was particularly the case after the capture of the ark by the Philistines, and the deaths of Eli and his sons. From that time to the middle of the reign of David the ark was in the custody of the men of Kiriath-jearim "in the hill," or "in Gibeah" (1 Samuel 7:1; 2 Samuel 6:2-3). As a general proposition Israel "sought not unto it" (1 Chronicles 13:3), though there is nothing to forbid the idea that it may, on occasion, have been brought out from its seclusion (1 Samuel 14:18). Before and after the accession of Saul some of the functions of the national sanctuary were transacted, of course very incompletely, at Gilgal (1 Samuel 10:8; 1 Samuel 11:14-15; 13:7 ff; 1 Samuel 15:12, 21, 33). Whether there was a priesthood, with Ahitub the grandson of Eli as high priest, is a matter on which we have no information; but we may remind ourselves that the common assumption that such men as Samuel and Saul performed priestly offices is nothing but an assumption.ISBE Ahimelech.3

After Saul has been king for a good many years we find Ahijah in his retinue, acting as priest and wearing priestly vestments. A few years later Ahimelech is at the head of the very considerable priestly establishment at Nob. The scale on which it existed is indicated by the fact that 85 robed priests perished in the massacre (1 Samuel 22:18). They had families residing at Nob (1 Samuel 22:19). They were thought of as priests of Yahweh, and were held in reverence (1 Samuel 22:17). It was a hereditary priesthood (1 Samuel 22:11, 15). Men deposited votive offerings there, the sword of Goliath, for example (1 Samuel 21:9). There seems to have been some kind of police authority, whereby a person might be "detained" (1 Samuel 21:7). It was customary to inquire of Yahweh there (1 Samuel 22:10, 15). A distraction was made between the common and the holy (1 Samuel 21:4-6). The custom of the shewbread was maintained (1 Samuel 21:6). In fine, Jesus is critically correct in calling the place "the house of God" (Mark 2:26). The account does not say that the ark was there, or that the burnt-offering of the morning and evening was offered, or that the great festivals were held. The priestly head of the establishment at Nob is represented to have been the man who had the right to the office through his descent from Aaron. It is gratuitous to assume that there were other similar sanctuaries in Israel, though the proposition that there were none might be, like other negative propositions, hard to establish by positive proof.ISBE Ahimelech.4

(2) A son of Abiathar (2 Samuel 8:17; 1 Chronicles 18:16; 24:6), and grandson of the above. In a list of the heads of departments under David, a list belonging later than the middle of David's 40 years, and in which David's sons appear, this Ahimelech, the son of David's friend, is mentioned as sharing with Zadok a high position in the priesthood. In this capacity, later, he shared with David and Zadok in the apportionment of the priests into 24 ancestral classes, 16 of the house of Eleazar, and 8 of the house of Ithamar (1 Chronicles 24:1-31). In this account Ahimelech is mentioned three times, and with some detail. It is alleged as a difficulty that Abiathar was then living, and was high priest along with Zadok (1 Chronicles 15:11; 2 Samuel 15:29; 19:11; 20:25; 1 Kings 2:27, 35; 4:4, etc.). But surely there is no improbability in the affirmation that Abiathar had a son named Ahimelech, or that this son performed prominent priestly functions in his father's lifetime.ISBE Ahimelech.5

Many regard "Ahimelech the son of Abiathar" (Mt gives Ahimelech) as an inadvertent transposition for "Abiathar the son of Ahimelech." This is rather plausible in the passage in 2 Samuel 8:1-18 and the duplicate of it in 1 Chronicles 18:16, but it has no application in the detailed account in 1 Chronicles 24:1-31. One must accept Ahimelech the son of Abiathar as historical unless, indeed, one regards the testimony of Ch to a fact as evidence in disproof of that fact.ISBE Ahimelech.6

See ABIATHAR.ISBE Ahimelech.7

(3) A Hittite, a companion and friend of David, when he was hiding from Saul in the wilderness (1 Samuel 26:6).ISBE Ahimelech.8

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahimelech.9

Ahimoth

Ahimoth - a-hi'-moth ('achimoth, "brother of death," or, "my brother is death"): A descendant of Kohath the son of Levi (1 Chronicles 6:25); ancestor of Elkanah the father of Samuel. The name Mahath holds a similar place in the list that follows (1 Chronicles 6:35).ISBE Ahimoth.2

Ahinadab

Ahinadab - a-hin'-a-dab ('achinadhabh, "brother of willingness," or, "my brother is willing"): Decidedly the ordinary use of the stem nadhabh is to denote willingness rather than liberality or nobleness One of Solomon's twelve commissary officers (1 Kings 4:14). He was the son of Iddo, and his district was Mahanaim.ISBE Ahinadab.2

Ahinoam

Ahinoam - a-hi-no'-am, a-hin'-o-am ('achino`am, "my brother is pleasantness"):ISBE Ahinoam.2

(1) Daughter of Ahimaaz, and wife of King Saul (1 Samuel 14:50).ISBE Ahinoam.3

(2) The woman from Jezreel whom David married after Saul gave Michal to another husband. She and Abigail, the widow of Nabal, seem to have been David's only wives prior to the beginning of his reign in Hebron. His marriage to Abigail is mentioned first, with some details, followed by the statement, easily to be understood in the pluperfect, that he had previously married Ahinoam (1 Samuel 25:39-44). Three times they are mentioned together, Ahinoam always first (1 Samuel 27:3; 30:5; 2 Samuel 2:2), and Ahinoam is the mother of David's first son and Abigail of his second (2 Samuel 3:2; 1 Chronicles 3:1). Ahinoam's son was Amnon. The record really represents David's polygamy as a series of bids for political influence; the names of Amnon, Absalom, Adonijah suggest that the method was not finally a success.ISBE Ahinoam.4

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahinoam.5

Ahio

Ahio - a-hi'-o ('achyo, variously explained as "his brother," "brotherly," "brother of Yahweh," "my brother is Yah"): Proper names containing a similar form of the name of Yahweh are found on the ostraca recently exhumed at Samaria. The word is always treated as a common noun in the ordinary Greek copies, being rendered either "brother" or "brothers," or "his brother" or "his brothers"; but this is probably to be taken as an instance of the relative inferiority of the Greek text as compared with the Massoretic Text.ISBE Ahio.2

See OSTRACA.ISBE Ahio.3

(1) One of the sons of Beriah, the son of Elpaal, the son of Shaharaim and Hushim, reckoned among the families of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:14). Beriah and Shema are described as `ancestral heads' "of the inhabitants of Aijalon, who put to flight the inhabitants of Gath."ISBE Ahio.4

(2) A descendant of Jeiel ("the father of Gibeon") and his wife Maacah (1 Chronicles 8:31; 9:37). King Saul apparently came from the same family (1 Chronicles 8:30, 33; 9:39).ISBE Ahio.5

(3) One of the men who drove the new cart when David first attempted to bring the ark from the house of Abinadab to Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6:3-4; 1 Chronicles 13:7). In Samuel Uzza and Ahio are called sons of Abinadab. By the most natural understanding of the Biblical data about 100 years had elapsed since the ark was brought to the house; they were sons of that Abinadab in the sense of being his descendants. Whether he had a successor of the same name living in David's time is a matter of conjecture.ISBE Ahio.6

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahio.7

Ahira

Ahira - a-hi'-ra ('achira`, "brother of evil," or, "my brother is evil"): A man of Naphtali, contemporary with Moses. He is five times mentioned as the son of Enan. He was the representative of his tribe who assisted Moses in the census (Numbers 1:15). He was the hereditary "prince" of the tribe; he made the tribal offering (Numbers 2:29; 7:78; compare Numbers 7:83), and was commander of the tribal host when on the march (Numbers 10:27).ISBE Ahira.2

Ahiram

Ahiram - a-hi'-ram ('achiram, "exalted brother," or "my brother is exalted"): A son of Benjamin. Mentioned third of the five in Numbers 26:38-39. In 1 Chronicles 8:1 five sons are likewise mentioned, being explicitly numbered; the third name, Aharah ('achrach), is conjectured to be either a corruption of Ahiram or a different name for the same person. In 1 Chronicles 7:6 ff is a fuller list of Benjamite names, but it is fragmentary and not clear. In it occurs Aher ('acher), which may be either Ahiram or Aharah with the end of the word lost. In Genesis 46:21 ten sons of Benjamin are mentioned, some being there counted as sons who, in the other lists, are spoken of as more remote descendants. In this list Ehi ('echi) is perhaps Ahiram shortened.ISBE Ahiram.2

See AHARAH; AHER; EHI.ISBE Ahiram.3

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahiram.4

Ahiramite

Ahiramite - a-hi'-ram-it ('achirami, "of the family of Ahiram"; Numbers 26:38).ISBE Ahiramite.2

See AHIRAM.ISBE Ahiramite.3

Ahisamach

Ahisamach - a-his'-a-mak ('achicamakh, "my brother supports"): A man of the tribe of Dan, father of Oholiab, who was the assistant of Bezalel in the building of the tent of meeting and preparing its furniture (Exodus 31:6; 35:34; 38:23).ISBE Ahisamach.2

Ahishahar

Ahishahar - a-hish'-a-har ('achishachar, "brother of dawn"): One of the sons of Bilhan, the son of Jediael, the son of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:10).ISBE Ahishahar.2

Ahishar

Ahishar - a-hish'-ar ('achishar, "my brother has sung"): Mentioned in Solomon's list of heads of departments as "over the household" (1 Kings 4:6).ISBE Ahishar.2

Ahithophel

Ahithophel - a-hith'-o-fel ('achithophel, "brother of foolishness," perhaps): The real leader of the Absalom rebellion against David. He is described as "the king's counselor," in a context connected with events some of which are dated in the fortieth year of David (1 Chronicles 27:33-34; compare 1 Chronicles 26:31). Concerning him and his part in the rebellion we have rather full information (2 Samuel 15:12 ff).ISBE Ahithophel.2

Some hold that he was the grandfather of Bathsheba, and make much of this in forming their estimates of him. Does the evidence sustain this view? In the latter half of the list of David's mighty men, not among the older veterans with whom the list begins, appears "Eliam the son of Ahithophel the Gilonite" (2 Samuel 23:34), the corresponding name in the other copy of the list being "Ahijah the Pelonite" (1 Chronicles 11:36). It is assumed that this is the same Eliam who was father to Bath-sheba (2 Samuel 11:3). Apparently the Chronicler testifies (1 Chronicles 3:5) that the mother of Solomon was "Bath-shua the daughter of Ammiel." Bathshua may easily be a variant of Bathsheba, and the names Eliam and Ammiel are made up of the same parts, only in reversed order. It is not strange that men have inferred that the son of Ahithophel was the father of Bathsheba. But the inference is really not a probable one. The record does not make the impression that Ahithophel was an older man than David. The recorded events of David's life after his misconduct with Bathsheba cannot have occupied less than about twenty years; that is, he cannot have been at the time older than about fifty years. That Ahithophel had then a married grand-daughter is less probable than that there were in Israel two Eliams. Further, Ahithophel was not the sort of man to conspire against the interests of his grand-daughter and her son, however he may, earlier, have resented the conduct of David toward her. Ahithophel's motive in the rebellion was doubtless ambition for personal power, though he very likely shared with many of his countrymen in the conviction that it was unjust to push aside an older son by elevating a younger son to the throne.ISBE Ahithophel.3

Ahithophel has a reputation for marvelous practical sagacity (2 Samuel 16:23). He did not show this in joining the conspiracy but it is in evidence in his management of the affair. According to the record the hearts of the people, in spite of the much fault they had to find, were all the time with David. Absalom's only chance of success was by the method of surprise and stampede. There must be a crisis in which everybody would join Absalom because everybody thought that everybody else had done so. Such a state of public sentiment could last only a very few days; but if, in those few days, David could be put out of the way, Absalom might hold the throne in virtue of his personal popularity and in default of a rival. The first part of the program was carried out with wonderful success; when it came to the second part, Ahithophel's practical wisdom was blocked by Hushai's adroit appeal to Absalom's personal vanity. Ahithophel saw with absolute clearness that Absalom had sacrificed his one opportunity, and he committed suicide to avoid participation in the shameful defeat which he saw could not be avertedISBE Ahithophel.4

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahithophel.5

Ahitob

Ahitob - a-hi'-tob (Achitob; the King James Version Achitob): One of the ancestors of Ezra (1 Esdras 8:2; 2 Esdras 1:1). Compare AHITUB, 3 (Ezra 7:2 et al.).ISBE Ahitob.2

Ahitub

Ahitub - a-hi'-tub ('achiTubh, "brother of goodness," i.e. "good brother," or, "my brother is goodness"):ISBE Ahitub.2

(1) The brother of Ichabod and son of Phinehas the son of Eli (1 Samuel 14:3; 1 Samuel 22:9, 11-12, 20), According to 1 Chronicles 24:1-31 he and his line were descended from Aaron through Ithamar. The record implies that he was born while his father and grandfather were priests at Shiloh, and it says that he was the father and grandfather of priests; but it is silent as to his own exercise of the priestly office. We have no information concerning the office from the time when the Philistines captured the ark till Saul became king.ISBE Ahitub.3

See AHIJAH; AHIMELECH; ABIATHAR.ISBE Ahitub.4

(2) A descendant of Aaron through Eleazar: by this fact distinguished from Ahitub, the descendant of Ithamar, though nearly contemporaneous with him. Especially known as the father of Zadok who, at Solomon's accession, became sole high priest (2 Samuel 8:17; 1 Chronicles 6:8; 18:16). His genealogical line, from Levi to the Exile, is given in 1 Chronicles 6:1-15 (1 Chronicles 5:26). The three successive names, Ahitub and Zadok and Ahimaaz, appear in 2 Sam (1 Chronicles 8:17; 15:27, etc.). The line is paralleled by selected names in Ezra 7:1-5, and relatively late parts of it are paralleled in 1 Chronicles 9:11 and Nehemiah 11:11. The best explanation of certain phenomena in Chronicles is that the record was copied from originals that were more or less fragmentary. In some cases, also, a writer gives only such parts of a genealogy as are needed for his purpose. It is due to these causes that there are many omissions in the genealogical lists, and that they supplement one another. Allowing for these facts there is no reason why we should not regard the genealogies of Ahitub as having distract historical value.ISBE Ahitub.5

(3) In the genealogies, in the seventh generation from Ahitub, the descendant of Eleazar, appears another Ahitub, the son of another Amariah and the father (or grandfather) of another Zadok (1 Chronicles 6:11 (1 Chronicles 5:26); 1 Chronicles 9:11; Nehemiah 11:11). The list in Ezra 7:1-28 omits a block of names, and the Ahitub there named may be either 2 or 3. He is mentioned in 1 Esdras 8:2 and 2 Esdras 1:1, and the name occurs in Judith 8:1. In these places it appears in the English versions in the various forms: Ahitub, Ahitob, Achitob, Acitho.ISBE Ahitub.6

Willis J. BeecherISBE Ahitub.7

Ahlab

Ahlab - a'-lab ('achlabh, "fat or fruitful"): A town of Asher. It is clear, however, that the Israelites failed to drive away the original inhabitants (Judges 1:31). Some have identified Ahlab with Gush Halab or Geschila, Northwest of the Sea of Galilee.ISBE Ahlab.2

Ahlai

Ahlai - a'-li ('achlay "O would that!"): (1) A Son of Sheshan (1 Chronicles 2:31) or according to 1 Chronicles 2:34 a daughter of Sheshan, for here we read: "Now Sheshan had no sons, but daughters." (2) The father of Zabad, a soldier in David's army (1 Chronicles 11:41).ISBE Ahlai.2

Ahoah

Ahoah - a-ho'-a ('achoah, "brotherly"(?)): A son of Bela of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:4).ISBE Ahoah.2

Ahohite

Ahohite - a-ho'-hit ('achochi): A patronymic employed in connection with the descendants of AHOAH (which see) such as Doda (2 Samuel 23:9) or Dodo (1 Chronicles 11:12), Ilai (29) or Zalmon (2 Samuel 23:28), and also Eleazar, son of Dodo (1 Chronicles 11:12). The family must have been fond of military affairs, for all the above were officers in David and Solomon's armies.ISBE Ahohite.2

Aholah

Aholah - a-ho'-la.ISBE Aholah.2

See OHOLAH.ISBE Aholah.3

Aholiab

Aholiab - a-ho-li'-ab.ISBE Aholiab.2

See OHOLIAB.ISBE Aholiab.3

Aholiah

Aholiah - a-ho-li'-a.ISBE Aholiah.2

See OHOLIAH .ISBE Aholiah.3

Aholibah

Aholibah - a-ho'-li-ba.ISBE Aholibah.2

See OHOLIBAH.ISBE Aholibah.3

Aholibamah

Aholibamah - a-ho-li-ba'-ma.ISBE Aholibamah.2

See OHOLIBAMAH.ISBE Aholibamah.3

Ahumai

Ahumai - a-hu'-ma-i, a-hu'-mi ('achumay, "brother of water"(?)): A descendant of Shobal of the tribe of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:2).ISBE Ahumai.2

Ahuzzam; Ahuzam

Ahuzzam; Ahuzam - a-huz'-am, a-hu'-zam ('achuzzam, "possessor"). A son of Ashahur of the tribe of Judah, his mother's name was Naarah (1 Chronicles 4:6); written Ahuzam in the King James Version.ISBE Ahuzzam; Ahuzam.2

Ahuzzath

Ahuzzath - a-huz'-ath ('achuzzath, "possession"): A "friend" perhaps a minister, of Abimelech, king of Gerar. He together with Phicol, commander of the army, accompanied their sovereign to Beersheba to make a covenant with Isaac (Genesis 26:26). The termination "-ath" reminds us of Philistine proper names, such as Gath, Goliath, etc. Compare Genubath (1 Kings 11:20).ISBE Ahuzzath.2

Ahzai

Ahzai - a'-zi ('achzay, "my protector"): A priest who resided in Jerusalem (Nehemiah 11:13). The the King James Version has Ahasai which is probably the same as Jahzevah of 1 Chronicles 9:12.ISBE Ahzai.2

Ai

Ai - a'-i (`ay, written always with the definite article, ha-`ay, probably meaning "the ruin," kindred root, `awah):ISBE Ai.2

(1) A town of central Palestine, in the tribe of Benjamin, near and just east of Bethel (Genesis 12:8). It is identified with the modern Haiyan, just south of the village Der Diwan (Conder in HDB; Delitzsch in Commentary on Genesis 12:8) or with a mound, El-Tell, to the north of the modern village (Davis, Dict. Biblical). The name first appears in the earliest journey of Abraham through Palestine (Genesis 12:8), where its location is given as east of Bethel, and near the altar which Abraham built between the two places. It is given similar mention as he returns from his sojourn in Egypt (Genesis 13:3). In both of these occurrences the King James Version has the form Hai, including the article in transliterating. The most conspicuous mention of Ai is in the narrative of the Conquest. As a consequence of the sin of Achan in appropriating articles from the devoted spoil of Jericho, the Israelites were routed in the attack upon the town; but after confession and expiation, a second assault was successful, the city was taken and burned, and left a heap of ruins, the inhabitants, in number twelve thousand, were put to death, the king captured, hanged and buried under a heap of stones at the gate of the ruined city, only the cattle being kept as spoil by the people (Joshua 7:1-26; Joshua 8:1-35). The town had not been rebuilt when Josh was written (Joshua 8:28). The fall of Ai gave the Israelites entrance to the heart of Canaan, where at once they became established, Bethel and other towns in the vicinity seeming to have yielded without a struggle. Ai was rebuilt at some later period, and is mentioned by Isa (Joshua 10:28) in his vivid description of the approach of the Assyrian army, the feminine form (`ayyath) being used. Its place in the order of march, as just beyond Michmash from Jerusalem, corresponds with the identification given above. It is mentioned also in post-exilic times by Ezr (Joshua 2:24) and Neh (Joshua 7:26, and in Joshua 11:23 as, `ayya'), identified in each case by the grouping with Bethel.ISBE Ai.3

(2) The Ai of Jeremiah 49:3 is an Ammonite town, the text probably being a corruption of `ar; or ha-`ir, "the city" (BDB).ISBE Ai.4

Edward MackISBE Ai.5

Aiah

Aiah - a'-ya ('ayyah, "falcon"; once in the King James Version Ajah, Genesis 36:24): (1) A Horite, son of Zibeon, and brother of Anah, who was father of one of Esau's wives (Genesis 36:24; 1 Chronicles 1:40). (2) Father of Rizpah, a concubine of Saul, about whom Ishbosheth falsely accused Abner (2 Samuel 3:7), and whose sons were hanged to appease the Gibeonites, whom Saul had wronged (2 Samuel 21:8-11).ISBE Aiah.2

Aiath

Aiath - a'-yath (`ayyath): Found in Isaiah 10:28; feminine form of the city AI (which see).ISBE Aiath.2

Aid

Aid - ad (chazaq, "to strengthen," "to aid"): A military term used only once in Old Testament in the King James Version (Judges 9:24) and displaced in the Revised Version (British and American) by the literal rendering, "who strengthened his hands." The men of Shechem supported Abimelech in his fratricidal crime, with money, enabling him to hire men to murder his brethren. The fundamental idea in the word, as used in the Old Testament, is "abounding strength."ISBE Aid.2

Aija

Aija - a-i'-ja (`ayya'): A form of name for city Ai, found in Nehemiah 11:31.ISBE Aija.2

See AI; AIATH.ISBE Aija.3

Aijalon

Aijalon - a'-ja-lon ('ayyalon, "deerplace"; the King James Version, Ajalon (Joshua 10:12)):ISBE Aijalon.2

(1) The name of a town allotted to the tribe of Dan (Joshua 19:42), which was also designated a Levitical city (Joshua 21:24), which fell to the Sons of Kohath (1 Chronicles 6:69). The first mention of Aijalon is in the narrative of Joshua's defeat of the five Amorite kings: "thou, Moon, in the valley of Aijalon" (Joshua 10:12). The Danites failed to take it from the Amorites (Judges 1:35), although the men of Ephraim held it in vassalage. Here Saul and Jonathan won a great victory over the Philistines (1 Samuel 14:31). At one time it was held by the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:13). Rehoboam fortified it against the kingdom of Israel (2 Chronicles 11:10). In the days of King Ahaz it was captured by the Philistines (2 Chronicles 28:18). It has been identified with the modern Yalo; its antiquity goes back to Tell el-Amarna Letters, in which it has mention. It Is situated Northwest of Jerusalem in a valley of the same name, which leads down from the mountains to the sea.ISBE Aijalon.3

(2) A town in the tribe of Zebulun, site unknown, where Elon the judge was buried (Judges 12:12).ISBE Aijalon.4

Edward MackISBE Aijalon.5

Aijeleth Hash-shahar

Aijeleth Hash-shahar - a'-je-leth hash-sha'-har.ISBE Aijeleth Hash-shahar.2

See PSALMS; SONG.ISBE Aijeleth Hash-shahar.3

Ail

Ail - al (Anglo-Saxon: eglan, "to pain"): As a verb translation, is "to trouble," "afflict" (obsolete); intrans, "to feel pain, trouble, uneasiness," etc.; it represents Hebrew mah lekha "what to thee" (Genesis 21:17, "What aileth thee, Hagar?"; Judges 18:23; 1 Samuel 11:5; 2 Samuel 14:5; 2 Kings 6:28; Isaiah 22:1); in Psalms 114:5, it is figuratively or poetically applied to the sea, the river Jordan, etc.: "What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou fleddest?" etc.; the Revised Version (British and American), "What aileth thee, O thou sea that thou fleest?" etc.; in 2 Esdras 9:42; 10:31, "What aileth thee?"ISBE Ail.2

Aim

Aim - am: In Wisdom of Solomon 13:9. Lit. translation by the King James Version of Greek stochasasthai, which commonly means "to shoot at." This is Interpreted and explained by the Revised Version (British and American) as "explore," with a hint as to the nature of the process, and may be paraphrased: "If they be able to conjecture the mysteries of the universe."ISBE Aim.2

Ain (1)

Ain (1) - See AYIN.ISBE Ain (1).2

Ain (2)

Ain (2) - a'-in (`ayin, "eye or spring (of water)"):ISBE Ain (2).2

(1) A town in the extreme Northwest corner of Canaan, so named, most probably, from a noted spring in the vicinity (Numbers 34:11). Thomson and after him Robinson make Ain the same as `Ain el-`Asy, the chief source of the Orontes, some fifteen miles Southwest of Riblah, which, in turn, is about twenty miles Southwest of Emesa (Hums). As Ain is named in connection with Lake Gennesaret, some claim that Riblah of Numbers 34:11 must be another place farther South and closer to that lake.ISBE Ain (2).3

(2) A Levitical city (Joshua 21:16) in the Negeb or southern part of Judah. It was first allotted to the tribe of Judah (Joshua 15:32) but later to Simeon (Joshua 19:7). The fact that it is several times named in immediate connection with Rimmon has lent plausibility to the view that we have here a compound word, and that we should read En-Rimmon, i.e. Ain-Rimmon (see Joshua 15:32; 19:7; 1 Chronicles 4:32).ISBE Ain (2).4

See also AYIN.ISBE Ain (2).5

W. W. DaviesISBE Ain (2).6

Air

Air - ar (aer): In the Old Testament "air" is used (with one exception) in the phrase "fowl" or "fowls (birds) of the air." The Hebrew word is usually rendered "heaven" or "heavens." According to ancient Hebrew cosmogony the sky was a solid dome (firmament) stretching over the earth as a covering. In the above phrase the air means the space between the earth and the firmament. In Job (41:16) "air" renders ruach, "breath," "wind," "spirit." The scales of the leviathan are so closely joined together that no air can penetrate. In the New Testament the phrase "birds (or fowls) of the air," occurs ten times. This simply reproduces the Hebraism noticed above. Apart from this expression "air" in the King James Version represents aer, which denotes the atmosphere which surrounds us. The expression "beating the air" (1 Corinthians 9:26) means to "deal blows that do not get home"--that miss the mark. In his conflict with the lower life represented by the body, Paul compares himself to a boxer who aims with unerring accuracy at his opponent. No stroke is lost. Paul also uses the phrase "speaking into the air" (1 Corinthians 14:9) in reference to the unintelligible utterances of those who "spake with tongues." In the expression, "prince of the powers of the air" (Ephesians 2:2 the King James Version) we find an echo of the current belief that the air was the dwelling place of spirits, especially of evil spirits.ISBE Air.2

Thomas LewisISBE Air.3

Airus

Airus - a-i'-rus, ar'-us (Iairos): the King James Version, one of the heads of a family of temple servants (1 Esdras 5:31 the Revised Version (British and American) JAIRUS), which returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel; in the Old Testament called Reaiah (Ezra 2:47; Nehemiah 7:50), and classed among the Nethinim.ISBE Airus.2

Ajah

Ajah - a'-ja. An Edomite tribe (Genesis 36:24 the King James Version).ISBE Ajah.2

See AIAH.ISBE Ajah.3

Ajalon

Ajalon - aj'-a-lon.ISBE Ajalon.2

See AIJALON.ISBE Ajalon.3

Akan

Akan - a'-kan (`aqan, "twisted"): A son of Ezer, a descendant of Esau of Seir (Genesis 36:27). He is called Jaakan in 1 Chronicles 1:42. The King James Version margin has Jakan.ISBE Akan.2

Akatan

Akatan - ak'-a-tan (Akatan; the King James Version, Acatan = Hakkatan; Ezra 8:12): The father of Joannes who returned with Ezra to Jerusalem (1 Esdras 8:38).ISBE Akatan.2

Akeldama

Akeldama - a-kel'-da-ma (Akeldama, or, in many manuscripts, Akeldamach; the King James Version, Aceldama): A field said in Acts 1:19 to have been bought by Judas with the "thirty pieces of silver." In Matthew 27:6-7 it is narrated that the priests took the silver pieces which Judas had "cast down .... into the sanctuary" and "bought with them the potter's field, to bury strangers in. Wherefore that field was called, The field of blood, unto this day." Doubtless it was a supposed connection between this potter's field and the potter's house (Jeremiah 18:2) and the Valley of the Son of Hinnom (Jeremiah 19:2) which influenced the selection of the present site which, like the Aramaic h-q-l-d-m-' (Dalman), is today known as haqq-ed-dumm, "field of blood."ISBE Akeldama.2

Tradition, which appears to go back to the 4th century, points to a level platform on, and some distance up, the southern slope of the Wady er Rababi (Valley of Hinnom) just before it joins the Kidron Valley. Upon this spot there is a very remarkable ruin (78 ft. x 57 ft.) which for many centuries was used as a charnel house. The earth here was reputed to have the property of quickly consuming dead bodies. So great was its reputation that vast quantities of it are said to have been transported in 1215 AD to the Campo Santo at Pisa. When this building was standing entire, the bodies were lowered into it through five openings in the roof and then left to disintegrate, so that a few years ago there were very many feet of bones all over the floor. These have now been removed. A little Southeast of this ruin is a new Greek monastery erected in recent years over the remains of a large number of cave tombs; many of the bones from "Akeldama" are now buried here.ISBE Akeldama.3

E. W. G. MastermanISBE Akeldama.4

Akkad; Akkadians

Akkad; Akkadians - ak'-ad, a-ka'-di-ans.ISBE Akkad; Akkadians.2

See ACCAD;ACCADIANS .ISBE Akkad; Akkadians.3

Akkos

Akkos - ak'-os (Akbos in 1 Esdras 5:38; the King James Version Accos, which see): The Old Testament equivalent (1 Chronicles 24:10; Ezra 2:61; Nehemiah 3:4, 21) is HAKKOZ (haqqots), which also see.ISBE Akkos.2

Akkub

Akkub - ak'-ub (`aqqubh, "pursuer"): (1) A son of Elioenai, a descendant of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:24). (2) A Levite porter on duty at the east gate of the second Temple (1 Chronicles 9:17).ISBE Akkub.2

Akrabattine

Akrabattine - ak-ra-ba-ti'-ne (Akrabattine; the King James Version, Arabattine): A place in Idumaea where Judas Maccabee defeated the children of Esau (1 Maccabees 5:3).ISBE Akrabattine.2

Akrabbim

Akrabbim - ak-rab'-im (once in the King James Version, Acrabbim (Joshua 15:3); `aqrabbim, "scorpions"): Three times found (Numbers 34:4; Joshua 15:3; Judges 1:36), and always with ma`aleh, "ascent" or "pass"; and so "Ascent of the Scorpions," an ascent at the Southwest point of the Dead Sea and a part of the boundary line between Judah and Edom. At this pass Judas Maccabeus won a victory over the Edomites (1 Maccabees 5:3), called in the King James Version, Arabattine.ISBE Akrabbim.2

Alabaster

Alabaster - al'-a-bas-ter (alabastron (Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37)): In modern mineralogy alabaster is crystalline gypsum or sulphate of lime. The Greek word alabastron or alabastos meant a stone casket or vase, and alabastites was used for the stone of which the casket was made. This stone was usually crystalline stalagmitic rock or carbonate of lime, now often called oriental alabaster, to distinguish it from gypsum. The word occurs in the Bible only in the three passages of the Synoptic Gospels cited above.ISBE Alabaster.2

See BOX.ISBE Alabaster.3

Alameth

Alameth - al'-a-meth (`alameth, "concealment"; 1 Chronicles 7:8 the King James Version): The name of a son of Becher and grandson of Benjamin. His name was preserved as the name of a town near Anathoth (ALLEMETH, 1 Chronicles 6:60 the Revised Version (British and American)). Except for the strong pausal accent in the Hebrew the form of the word would be the same as ALEMETH (which see).ISBE Alameth.2

Alammelech

Alammelech - a-lam'-e-lek: the King James Version (Joshua 19:26) for ALLAMMELECH (which see).ISBE Alammelech.2

Alamoth

Alamoth - al'-a-moth.ISBE Alamoth.2

See MUSIC.ISBE Alamoth.3

Alarm

Alarm - a-larm' (teru`ah): This expression is found six times in the Old Testament. The Hebrew word so rendered is derived from a verb meaning "to shout" or "blow a horn," as a signal for breaking up camp, starting on a journey or into battle, or in triumphant shout over the defeat of enemies. In a few instances it is employed of a cry of despair or distress. The noun teru`ah translated "alarm" in Numbers 10:5 f refers to the signal given the people of Israel to start on their journey in the Wilderness. The passages in Jer (Numbers 4:19-49) both refer to the summons for war. The same is true of Zephaniah 1:16.ISBE Alarm.2

The law concerning the sounding of the alarm is fully stated in Numbers 10:1-10. Here we read that two silver trumpets of beaten work were sounded by the sons of Aaron in case of war and also "in the day of .... gladness" to gather the people together for the various feasts, new moons, sacrifices and offerings.ISBE Alarm.3

W. W. DaviesISBE Alarm.4

Albeit

Albeit - ol-be'-it (hina me; literally, "lest"): Occurs in a paraphrase rather than as a translation of a clause in Philemon 1:19 the King James Version. The thought is: "although" or "albeit" (synonym of "although") "I might say," etc. This the Revised Version (British and American) translates with intense literalness: "that I say not".ISBE Albeit.2

Alcimus

Alcimus - al'-si-mus ('elyaqum, "God will rise"; Alkimos, "valiant"): A high priest for three years, 163-161 BC, the record of whose career may be found in 1 Maccabees 7:4-50; 1 Maccabees 9:1-57; 2 Maccabees 14; see also Ant,XII , 9-11;XX , 10. He was a descendant of Aaron, but not in the high-priestly line (1 Maccabees 7:14; also Ant, XX, 10); and being ambitious for the office of high priest, he hastened to Antioch to secure the favor and help of the new king, Demetrius, who had just overthrown Antiochus Eupator and made himself king. Alcimus was of the Grecianizing party, and therefore bitterly opposed by the Maccabees. Demetrius sent a strong army under Bacchides to establish him in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem. The favor with which Alcimus was received by the Jews at Jerusalem on account of his Aaronic descent was soon turned to hate by his cruelties. When Bacchides and his army returned to Antioch, Simon Maccabeus attacked and overcame Alcimus, and drove him also to Syria. There he secured from Demetrius another army, led by Nicanor, who, failing to secure Simon by treachery, joined battle with him, but was defeated and killed. A third and greater army, under Bacchides again, was dispatched to save the falling fortunes of Alcimus. Now Simon was overwhelmed and slain, Alcimus established as high priest and a strong force left in Jerusalem to uphold him. But he did not long enjoy his triumph, since he died soon after from a paralytic stroke.ISBE Alcimus.2

Edward MackISBE Alcimus.3

Alcove

Alcove - al'-kov (qubbah; the King James Version tent; the American Standard Revised Version pavilion; the American Revised Version, margin alcove): Perhaps a large tent occupied by a prince (Numbers 25:8).ISBE Alcove.2

Alema

Alema - al'-e-ma (Alemois): A town in Gilead, mentioned once only (1 Maccabees 5:26), besieged by the nations under Timotheus, together with Bosor and other cities; and probably relieved along with these cities by Judas Maccabeus, although no mention is made of Alema's relief. The name occurs the one time as dative plural.ISBE Alema.2

Alemeth

Alemeth - al'-e-meth (`alemeth, "concealment"): (1) the Revised Version (British and American) for Alameth of the King James Version in 1 Chronicles 7:8. (2) Descendant of Saul and Jonathan, and son of Jehoaddah, 1 Chronicles 8:36, or of Jarah, 1 Chronicles 9:42. The genealogies in the two chapters are identical, and he is the fifth generation after Jonathan. (3) In some Hebrew texts, Ginsburg and Baer, for ALLEMETH (which see); so in the King James Version.ISBE Alemeth.2

Aleph

Aleph - a'-lef ('): The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It is nearly soundless itself and best represented, as in this Encyclopedia, by the smooth breathing ('), but it is the direct ancestor of the Greek, Latin and English "a" as in "father." In either case this beginning of the alphabet happens to be near the very basis of all speech--in one case the simple expiration of breath, in the other the simplest possible vocal action--the actual basis from which all other vowels are evolved. It became also the symbol for the number one (1) and, with the dieresis, 1,000. It is the symbol also for one of the most famous of Greek Biblical manuscripts, the Codex Sinaiticus. For name, written form, etc., see ALPHABET.ISBE Aleph.2

E. C. RichardsonISBE Aleph.3

Aleppo

Aleppo - a-lep'-o.ISBE Aleppo.2

See BEREA.ISBE Aleppo.3

Alexander

Alexander - al-eg-zan'-der (Alexandros, literal meaning "defender of men." This word occurs five times in the New Testament, Mark 15:21; Acts 4:6; 19:33; 1 Timothy 1:19-20; 2 Timothy 4:14): It is not certain whether the third, fourth and fifth of these passages refer to the same man.ISBE Alexander.2

1. A Son of Simon of Cyrene: The first of these Alexanders is referred to in the passage in Mk, where he is said to have been one of the sons of Simon of Cyrene, the man who carried the cross of Christ. Alexander therefore may have been a North African by birth. Matthew, Mark, and Luke all record the fact, with varying detail, that Simon happened to be passing at the time when Christ was being led out of the city, to be crucified on Calvary. Mark alone tells that Simon was the father of Alexander and Rufus. From this statement of the evangelist, it is apparent that at the time the Second Gospel was written, Alexander and Rufus were Christians, and that they were well known in the Christian community. Mark takes it for granted that the first readers of his Gospel will at once understand whom he means.ISBE Alexander.3

There is no other mention of Alexander in the New Testament, but it is usually thought that his brother Rufus is the person mentioned by Paul in Romans 16:13, "Salute Rufus the chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine." If this identification is correct, then it follows, not only that the sons of Simon were Christians, but that his wife also was a Christian, and that they had all continued faithful to Christ for many years. It would also follow that the households were among the intimate friends of Paul, so much so that the mother of the family is affectionately addressed by him as "Rufus' mother and mine." The meaning of this is, that in time past this lady had treated Paul with the tender care which a mother feels and shows to her own son.ISBE Alexander.4

This mention of Rufus and his mother is in the list of names of Christians resident in Rome. Lightfoot (Comm. on Phil, 176) writes: "There seems no reason to doubt the tradition that Mk wrote especially for the Romans; and if so, it is worth remarking that he alone of the evangelists describes Simon of Cyrene, as `the father of Alexander and Rufus.' A person of this name therefore (Rufus) seems to have held a prominent place among the Roman Christians; and thus there is at least fair ground for identifying the Rufus of Paul with the Rufus of Mark. The inscriptions exhibit several members of the household (of the emperor) bearing the names Rufus and Alexander, but this fact is of no value where both names are so common."ISBE Alexander.5

To sum up, Alexander was probably by birth a North African Jew; he became a Christian, and was a well-known member of the church, probably the church in Rome. His chief claim to recollection is that he was a son of the man who carried the cross of the Saviour of the world.ISBE Alexander.6

2. A Relative of Annas: The second Alexander, referred to in Acts 4:6, was a relative of Annas the Jewish high priest. He is mentioned by Lk, as having been present as a member of the Sanhedrin, before which Peter and John were brought to be examined, for what they had done in the cure of the lame man at the gate of the temple. Nothing more is known of this Alexander than is here given by Luke. It has been conjectured that he may have been the Alexander who was a brother of Philo, and who was also the alabarch or magistrate of the city of Alexandria. But this conjecture is unsupported by any evidence at all.ISBE Alexander.7

3. Alexander and the Riot at Ephesus: The third Alexander is mentioned in Acts 19:33: "And some of the multitude instructed Alexander, the Jews putting him forward. And Alexander beckoned with the hand, and would have made defense unto the people. But when they perceived that he was a Jew, all with one voice," etc., the Revised Version, margin. In the matter of the riot in Ephesus the whole responsibility rested with Demetrius the silversmith. In his anger against the Christians generally, but specially against Paul, because of his successful preaching of the gospel, he called together a meeting of the craftsmen; the trade of the manufacture of idols was in jeopardy. From this meeting there arose the riot, in which the whole city was in commotion. The Jews were wholly innocent in the matter: they had done nothing to cause any disturbance. But the riot had taken place, and no one could tell what would happen. Modern anti-Semitism, in Russia and other European countries, gives an idea of an excited mob stirred on by hatred of the Jews. Instantly recognizing that the fury of the Ephesian people might expend itself in violence and bloodshed, and that in that fury they would be the sufferers, the Jews "put forward" Alexander, so that by his skill as a speaker he might clear them, either of having instigated the riot, or of being in complicity with Paul. "A certain Alexander was put forward by the Jews to address the mob; but this merely increased the clamor and confusion. There was no clear idea among the rioters what they wanted: an anti-Jewish and an anti-Christian demonstration were mixed up, and probably Alexander's retention was to turn the general feeling away from the Jews. It is possible that he was the worker in bronze, who afterward did Paul much harm" (Ramsay, Paul the Traveler, etc., 279).ISBE Alexander.8

4. Alexander an Ephesian Heretic: The fourth of the New Testament Alexanders is one of two heretical teachers at Ephesus--the other being Hymeneus: see article under the word--against whom Paul warns Timothy in 1 Timothy 1:19-20. The teaching of Hymeneus and Alexander was to the effect that Christian morality was not required--antinomianism. They put away--"thrust from them," the Revised Version (British and American)--faith and a good conscience; they willfully abandoned the great central facts regarding Christ, and so they "made shipwreck concerning the faith."ISBE Alexander.9

5. His Heresy Incipient Gnosticism: In 2 Timothy 2:17, 18, Hymeneus is associated with Philetus, and further details are there given regarding their false teaching. What they taught is described by Paul as "profane babblings," as leading to more ungodliness, and as eating "as doth a gangrene." Their heresy consisted in saying that the resurrection was past already, and it had been so far successful, that it had overthrown the faith of some. The doctrine of these three heretical teachers, Hymeneus, Alexander and Philetus, was accordingly one of the early forms of Gnosticism. It held that matter was originally and essentially evil; that for this reason the body was not an essential part of human nature; that the only resurrection was that of each man as he awoke from the death of sin to a righteous life; that thus in the case of everyone who has repented of sin, "the resurrection was past already," and that the body did not participate in the blessedness of the future life, but that salvation consisted in the soul's complete deliverance from all contact with a material world and a material body.ISBE Alexander.10

So pernicious were these teachings of incipient Gnosticism in the Christian church, that they quickly spread, eating like a gangrene. The denial of the future resurrection of the body involved also the dental of the bodily resurrection of Christ, and even the fact of the incarnation. The way in which therefore the apostle dealt with those who taught such deadly error, was that he resorted to the same extreme measures as he had employed in the case of the immoral person at Corinth; he delivered Hymeneus and Alexander to Satan, that they might learn not to blaspheme. Compare 1 Corinthians 5:5.ISBE Alexander.11

6. Alexander the Coppersmith: The fifth and last occurrence of the name Alexander is in 2 Timothy 4:14-15, "Alexander the coppersmith did me much evil: the Lord will render to him according to his works: of whom do thou also beware (the King James Version "of whom be thou ware also"); for he greatly withstood our words." This Alexander was a worker in copper or iron, a smith. It is quite uncertain whether Alexander number 5 should be identified with Alexander number 4, and even with Alexander number 3. In regard to this, it should be remembered that all three of these Alexanders were resident in Ephesus; and it is specially to be noticed that the fourth and the fifth of that name resided in that city at much the same time; the interval between Paul's references to these two being not more than a year or two, as not more than that time elapsed between his writing 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy. It is therefore quite possible these two Alexanders may be one and the same person.ISBE Alexander.12

In any case, what is stud of this last Alexander is that he had shown the evil which was in him by doing many evil deeds to the apostle, evidently on the occasion of a recent visit paid by Paul to Ephesus. These evil deeds had taken the form of personally opposing the apostle's preaching. The personal antagonism of Alexander manifested itself by his greatly withstanding the proclamation of the gospel by Paul. As Timothy was now in Ephesus, in charge of the church there, he is strongly cautioned by the apostle to be on his guard against this opponent.ISBE Alexander.13

John RutherfurdISBE Alexander.14

Alexander Balas

Alexander Balas - Alexander ba'-las (Alexandros ho Balas legomenos): He contended against Demetrius I of Syria for the throne and succeeded in obtaining it. He was a youth of mean origin, but he was put forth by the enemies of Demetrius as being Alexander, the son and heir of Antiochus Epiphanes. He received the support of the Roman Senate and of Ptolemy VI of Egypt, and on account of the tyranny of Demetrius, was favored by many of the Syrians. The country was thrown into civil war and Demetrius was defeated by Alexander II took up the cause of his father and in 147 BC, Alexander fled from his kingdom and was soon after assassinated.ISBE Alexander Balas.2

Our chief interest in Alexander is his connection with the Maccabees. Jonathan was the leader of the Maccabean forces and both Alexander and Demetrius sought his aid. Demetrius granted Jonathan the right to raise and maintain an army. Alexander, not to be outdone, appointed Jonathan high priest, and as a token of his new office sent him a purple robe and a diadem (Ant., XIII, ii, 2). This was an important step in the rise of the Maccabean house, for it insured them the support of the Chasidim. In 153 BC, Jonathan officiated as high priest at the altar (1 Maccabees 10:1-14; Ant, XIII, ii, 1). This made him the legal head of Judea and thus the movement of the Maccabees became closely identified with Judaism. In 1 Maccabees 10:1, he is called Alexander Epiphanes.ISBE Alexander Balas.3

A. W. FortuneISBE Alexander Balas.4

Alexander, the Great

Alexander, the Great - (Alexandros).ISBE Alexander, the Great.2

1. Parentage and Early Life: Alexander, of Macedon, commonly called "the Great" (born 356 BC), was the son of Philip, king of Macedon, and of Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemos, an Epeirote king. Although Alexander is not mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, in Dan he is designated by a transparent symbol (8:5,21). In 1 Maccabees 1:1 he is expressly named as the overthrower of the Persian empire, and the founder of that of the Greeks. As with Frederick the Great, the career of Alexander would have been impossible had his father been other than he was. Philip had been for some years a hostage in Thebes: while there he had learned to appreciate the changes introduced into military discipline and tactics by Epaminondas. Partly no doubt from the family claim to Heracleid descent, deepened by contact in earlier days with Athenians like Iphicrates, and the personal influence of Epaminondas, Philip seems to have united to his admiration for Greek tactics a tincture of Hellenistic culture, and something like a reverence for Athens, the great center of this culture. In military matters his admiration led him to introduce the Theban discipline to the rough peasant levies of Macedon, and the Macedonian phalanx proved the most formidable military weapon that had yet been devised. The veneer of Greek culture which he had taken on led him, on the one hand, laying stress on his Hellenistic descent, to claim admission to the comity of Hellas, and on the other, to appoint Aristotle to be a tutor to his son. By a combination of force and fraud, favored by circumstances, Philip got himself appointed generalissimo of the Hellenistic states; and further induced them to proclaim war against the "Great King." In all this he was preparing the way for his son, so soon to be his successor.ISBE Alexander, the Great.3

2. His Preparation for His Career: He was also preparing his son for his career. Alexander was, partly no doubt from being the pupil of Aristotle, yet more imbued with Greek feelings and ideas than was Preparation his father. He was early introduced into the cares of government and the practice of war. While Philip was engaged in the siege of Byzantium he sent his son to replace Antipater in the regency; during his occupancy of this post, Alexander, then only a youth of sixteen, had to undertake a campaign against the Illyrians, probably a punitive expedition. Two years later, at the decisive battle of Chaeroneia, which fixed the doom of the Greek autonomous city, Alexander commanded the feudal cavalry of Macedon, the "Companions." He not only saved his father's life, but by his timely and vehement charge materially contributed to the victory.ISBE Alexander, the Great.4

3. His Accession to the Hegemony of Greece: When all his plans for the invasion of Persia were complete, and a portion of his troops was already across the Hellespont, Philip was assassinated. Having secured his succession, Alexander proceeded to Corinth, where he was confirmed in his father's position of leader of Hellas against Darius. Before he could cross into Asia he had to secure his northern frontier against possible raids of barbarian tribes. He invaded Thrace with his army and overthrew the Triballi, then crossed the Danube and inflicted a defeat on the Getae. During his absence in these but slightly known regions, the rumor spread that he had been killed, and Thebes began a movement to throw off the Macedonian yoke. On his return to Greece he wreaked terrible vengeance on Thebes, not only as promoter of this revolt, but also as the most powerful of the Greek states.ISBE Alexander, the Great.5

4. Campaign in Asia Minor: Having thus secured his rear, Alexander collected his army at Pella to cross the Hellespont, that he might exact the vengeance of Greece on Persia for indignities suffered at the hands of Xerxes, who "by his strength through his riches" had stirred, up "all against the realm of Grecia" (Daniel 11:2, the King James Version). Steeped as he was in the romance of the Iliad, Alexander, when he came to the site of Troy, honored Achilles, whom he claimed as his ancestor, with games and sacrifices. This may have been the outflow of his own romantic nature, but there was also wise policy in it; the Greeks were more readily reconciled to the loss of their freedom when it was yielded up to one who revived in his own person the heroes of the Iliad. It may be noted how exactly the point of Alexander's invasion is indicated in Daniel's prophecy (Daniel 8:5). From Troy he advanced southward, and encountered the Persian forces at the Granicus. While in the conflict Alexander exhibited all the reckless bravery of a Homeric hero. He at the same time showed the skill of a consummate general. The Persian army was dispersed with great slaughter. Before proceeding farther into Persia, by rapid marches and vigorously pressed sieges, he completed the conquest of Asia Minor. Here, too, he showed his knowledge of the sensitiveness of Asiatic peoples to omens, by visiting Gordium, and cutting the knot on which, according to legend, depended the empire of Asia.ISBE Alexander, the Great.6

5. Battle of Issus and March through Syria to Egypt:ISBE Alexander, the Great.7

What he had done in symbol he had to make a reality; he had to settle the question of supremacy in Asia by the sword. He leaned that Darius had collected an immense army and was coming to meet him. Although the Persian host was estimated at a half-million men, Alexander hastened to encounter it. Rapidity of motion, as symbolized in Dan by the "he-goat" that "came from the west .... and touched not the ground" (Daniel 8:5), was Alexander's great characteristic. The two armies met in the relatively narrow plain of Issus, where the Persians lost, to a great extent, the advantage of their numbers; they were defeated with tremendous slaughter, Darius himself setting the example of flight. Alexander only pursued the defeated army far enough to break it up utterly. He began his march southward along the seacoast of Syria toward Egypt, a country that had always impressed the Greek imagination. Though most of the cities, on his march, opened their gates to the conqueror, Tyre and Gaza only yielded after a prolonged siege. In the case of the latter of these, enraged at the delay occasioned by the resistance, and emulous of his ancestor, Alexander dragged its gallant defender Batis alive behind his chariot as Achilles had dragged the dead Hector. It ought to be noted that this episode does not appear in Arrian, usually regarded as the most authentic historian of Alexander. Josephus relates that after he had taken Gaza, Alexander went up to Jerusalem, and saw Jaddua the high priest, who showed him the prophecy of Daniel concerning him. The fact that none of the classic historians take any notice of such a detour renders the narrative doubtful: still it contains no element of improbability that the pupil of Aristotle, in the pursuit of knowledge, might, during the prosecution of the siege of Gaza, with a small company press into the hill country of Judea, at once to secure the submission of Jerusalem which occupied a threatening position in regard to his communications, and to see something of that mysterious nation who worshipped one God and had no idols.ISBE Alexander, the Great.8

6. Founding of Alexandria and Visit to the Shrine of Jupiter Ammon:ISBE Alexander, the Great.9

When he entered Egypt, the whole country submitted without a struggle. Moved at once by the fact that Pharos is mentioned in the Odyssey, and that he could best rule Egypt from the seacoast, he founded Alexandria on the strip of land opposite Pharos, which separated Lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean. The island Pharos formed a natural breakwater which made possible a spacious double harbor; the lake, communicating with the Nile, opened the way for inland navigation. As usual with Alexander, romance and policy went hand in hand. The city thus founded became the capital of the Ptolemies, and the largest city of the Hellenistic world. He spent his time visiting shrines, in the intervals of arranging for the government of the country. The most memorable event of his stay in Egypt was his expedition to the oracle or Jupiter Ammon (Amen-Ra) where he was declared the son of the god. To the Egyptians this meant no more than that he was regarded a lawful monarch, but he pretended to take this declaration as assigning to him a Divine origin like so many Homeric heroes. Henceforward, there appeared on coins Alexander's head adorned with the ram's horn of Amen-Ra. This impressed the eastern imagination so deeply that Mohammed, a thousand years after, calls him in the Quran Iskander dhu al-qarnain, "Alexander the lord of the two horns." It is impossible to believe that the writer of Dan could, in the face of the universal attribution of the two ram's horns to Alexander, represent Persia, the power he overthrew, as a two-horned ram (Daniel 8:3, 20), unless he had written before the expedition into Egypt.ISBE Alexander, the Great.10

7. The Last Battle with Darius: Having arranged the affairs of Egypt, Alexander set out for his last encounter with Darius. In vain had Darius sent to Alexander offering to share the empire with him; the "king of Javan" (Revised Version margin) "was moved with anger against him" (Daniel 8:7) and would have nothing but absolute submission. There was nothing left for Darius but to prepare for the final conflict. He collected a yet huger host than that he had had under him at Issus, and assembled it on the plain east of the Tigris. Alexander hastened to meet him. Although the plain around Gaugamela was much more suitable for the movements of the Persian troops, which consisted largely of cavalry, and gave them better opportunity of making use of their great numerical superiority to outflank the small Greek army, the result was the same as at Issus--overwhelming defeat and immense slaughter. The consequence of this victory was the submission of the greater portion of the Persian empire.ISBE Alexander, the Great.11

After making some arrangements for the government of the new provinces, Alexander set out in the pursuit of Darius, who had fled in the care or custody of Bessus, satrap of Bactria. Bessus, at last, to gain the favor of Alexander, or, failing that, to maintain a more successful resistance, murdered Darius. Alexander hurried on to the conquest of Bactria and Sogdiana, in the course of his expedition capturing Bessus and putting him to death. In imitation of Bacchus, he proceeded now to invade India. He conquered all before him till he reached the Sutlej; at this point his Macedonian veterans refused to follow him farther.ISBE Alexander, the Great.12

8. Close of His Life: Thus compelled to give up hopes of conquests in the farther East, he returned to Babylon, which he purposed to make the supreme capital of his empire, and set himself, with all his superabundant energy, to organize his dominions, and fit Babylon for its new destiny. While engaged in this work he was seized with malaria, which, aggravated by his recklessness in eating and drinking, carried him off in his 33rd year.ISBE Alexander, the Great.13

9. His Influence: Alexander is not to be estimated merely as a military conqueror. If he had been only this, he would have left no deeper impress on the world than Tamerlane or Attila. While he conquered Asia, he endeavored also to Hellenize her. He everywhere founded Greek cities that enjoyed at all events a municipal autonomy. With these, Hellenistic thought and the Hellenistic language were spread all over southwestern Asia, so that philosophers from the banks of the Euphrates taught in the schools of Athens. It was through the conquests of Alexander that Greek became the language of literature and commerce from the shores of the Mediterranean to the banks of the Tigris. It is impossible to estimate the effect of this spread of Greek on the promulgation of the gospel.ISBE Alexander, the Great.14

J. E. H. ThomsonISBE Alexander, the Great.15

Alexandria

Alexandria - al-eg-zan'-dri-a (he Alexandreia).ISBE Alexandria.2

1. History: In 331 BC, Alexander the Great, on his way to visit the Oracle of Amon seeking divine honors, stopped at the West extremity of the Delta at the isle of Pharos the landing-place of Odysseus (Od. iv.35) His keen eye noted the strategic possibilities of the site occupied by the little Egyptian village of Rhacotis, and his decision was immediate to erect here, where it would command the gateway to the richest domain of his empire, a glorious city to be called by his own name. Deinocrates, greatest living architect, already famous as builder of the Temple of Diana, was given free hand and like a dream the most beautiful city of the ancient or modern world (with the single exception of Rome) arose with straight, parallel streets--one at least 200 feet wide--with fortresses, monuments, palaces, government buildings and parks all erected according to a perfect artistic plan. The city was about fifteen miles in circumference (Pliny), and when looked at from above represented a Macedonian cloak, such as was worn by Alexander's heroic ancestors. A colossal mole joined the island to the main land and made a double harbor, the best in all Egypt. Before Alexander died (323 BC) the future of the city as the commercial metropolis of the world was assured and here the golden casket of the conqueror was placed in a fitting mausoleum. Under the protection of the first two Ptolemies and Euergetes Alexandria reached its highest prosperity, receiving through Lake Mareotis the products of Upper Egypt, reaching by the Great Sea all the wealth of the West, while through the Red Sea its merchant vessels brought all the treasures of India and Arabia into the Alexandria docks without once being unladen. The manufactories of Alexandria were extensive, the greatest industry however being shipbuilding, the largest merchant ships of the world and battleships capable of carrying 1,000 men, which could hurl fire with fearful effect, being constructed here. This position of supremacy was maintained during the Roman domination up to the 5th century during which Alexandria began to decline. Yet even when Alexandria was captured by the Arabs (641) under the caliph Omar, the general could report: "I have taken a city containing 4,000 palaces and 4,000 baths and 400 theaters." They called it a "city of marble" and believed the colossal obelisks, standing on crabs of crystal, and the Pharos, that white stone tower 400 ft. high, "wonder of the world," to be the creation of jinn, not of men. With oriental exaggeration they declared that one amphitheater could easily hold a million spectators and that it was positively painful to go upon the streets at night because of the glare of light reflected from the white palaces. But with the coming of the Arabs Alexandria began to decline. It sank lower when Cairo became the capital (circa 1000 AD), and received its death blow when a sea route to India was discovered by way of the Cape of Good Hope (circa 1500). Today the ancient Alexandria lies entirely under the sea or beneath some later construction. Only one important relic remains visible, the so-called Pompey's Pillar which dates from the reign of Diocletian. Excavations by the English (1895) and Germans (1898-99) have yielded few results, though Dr. G. Botti discovered the Serapeum and some immense catacombs, and only recently (1907) some fine sphinxes. In its most flourishing period the population numbered from 600,000 to 800,000, half of whom were perhaps slaves. At the close of the 18th century. it numbered no more than 7,000. Under the khedives it has recently gained something of its old importance and numbers now 320,000, of whom 46,000 are Europeans, chiefly Greeks (Baedeker, Handbook, 1902; Murray, Handbook, 1907).ISBE Alexandria.3

2. The Jews in Alexandria: Among the private papers of Alexander it is said a sketch was found outlining his vast plan of making a Greek empire which should include all races as harmonious units. In accordance with this, Europeans, Asiatics and Africans found in Alexandria a common citizenship. Indeed in several cities, under the Ptolemies, who accepted this policy, foreigners were even given superiority to natives. Egyptians and Greeks were conciliated by the introduction of a syncretic religion in which the greatest Greek god was worshipped as Osiris, Egyptian god of the underworld, whose soul appeared visibly in the form of the Apis bull. This was the most popular and human form of the Egyptian worship. This new religion obtained phenomenal success. It was in furtherance of this general policy that the Jews in Alexandria were given special privileges, and though probably not possessing full civic rights, yet they "occupied in Alexandria a more Influential position than anywhere else in the ancient world" (Jewish Encyclopedia). To avoid unnecessary friction a separate district was given to the Jews, another to the Greeks and another to the native Egyptians. In the Greek section were situated the palaces of the Ptolemies, the Library and Museum. In the Egyptian district was the temple dedicated to Serapis (Osiris-Apis) which was only excelled in grandeur by the capitol at Rome. The Jews possessed many synagogues in their own district and in Philo's day these were not confined to any one section of the city. Some synagogues seem to have exercised the right of asylum, the same as heathen temples. One of these was so large that the chazan signaled by a flag when the congregation should give the Amen! Each district had a practically independent political government. The Jews were at first ruled by a Hebrew ethnarch. By the days of Augustus a Council of Elders (gerusia) had control, presided over by 71 archons. Because of their wealth, education and social position they reached high public office. Under Ptol. VI and Cleopatra the two generals-in-chief of the royal army were Jews. Ptol. I had 30,000 Jewish soldiers, in his army, whose barracks have only recently been discovered. It may have been a good thing that the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes (2nd century BC) checked Jewish Hellenization. During the Roman supremacy the rights of the Jews were maintained, except during their persecution for a brief period by the insane Caligula, and the control of the most important industries, including the corn trade, came into their hands. When Christianity became the state religion of Egypt the Jews at once began to be persecuted. The victory of Heraclius over the Persians (629 AD) was followed by such a massacre of the Jews that the Coptics of Egypt still denominate the first week in Lent as the "Fast of Heraclius." Wisdom and many other influential writings of the Jews originated in Alexandria. Doubtless numbers of the recently discovered documents from the Cairo genizah came originally from Alexandria. But the epochal importance of Alexandria is found in the teaching which prepared the Hebrew people for the reception of a gospel for the whole world, which was soon to be preached by Hebrews from Hellenized Galilee.ISBE Alexandria.4

3. Alexandria's Influence on the Bible: (1) In Daniel 11:1-45 the Ptolomies of Alexandria and their wives are made a theme of prophecy. Apollos, the "orator," was born in Alexandria (Acts 18:24). Luke twice speaks of himself and Paul sailing in "a ship of Alexandria" (Acts 27:6; 28:11). Stephen `disputed' in Jerusalem in the synagogue of the Alexandrians (Acts 6:9). These direct references are few, but the influence of Alexandria on the Bible was inestimable.ISBE Alexandria.5

(2) The Septuagint, translated in Alexandria (3rd to 2nd centuries BC), preserves a Hebrew text 1,000 years older than any now known. This translation if not used by Jesus was certainly used by Paul and other New Testament writers, as shown by their quotations. It is Egyptian even in trifles. This Greek Bible not only opened for the first time the "Divine Oracles" to the Gentiles and thus gave to the Old Testament an international influence, but it affected most vitally the Hebrew and Christian development.ISBE Alexandria.6

(3) The Alexandrinus Codex (4th to 5th centuries) was the first of all the great uncials to come into the hands of modern scholars. It was obtained in Alexandria and sent as a present to the king of England (1628) by Cyrellus Lucaris, the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Sinaiticus and Vaticanus uncials with many other most important Bible manuscripts--Hebrew, Greek, Coptic and Syriac--came from Alexandria.ISBE Alexandria.7

(4) John and several other New Testament writings have justly been regarded as showing the influence of this philosophic city. Neither the phraseology nor conceptions of the Fourth Gospel could have been grasped in a world which Alexandria had not taught. Pfleiderer's statement that He "may be termed the most finished treatise of the Alexandria philosophy" may be doubted, but no one can doubt the fact of Alexandrian influence on the New Testament.ISBE Alexandria.8

4. Influence of Alexandria on Culture: With the founding of the University of Alexandria began the "third great epoch in the history of civilization" (Max Muller). It was modeled after the great school of Athens, but excelled, being preeminently the "university of progress" (Mahaffy). Here for the first time is seen a school of science and literature, adequately endowed and offering large facilities for definite original research. The famous library which at different eras was reported as possessing from 400,000 to 900,000 books and rolls--the rolls being as precious as the books--was a magnificent edifice connected by marble colonnades with the Museum, the "Temple of the Muses." An observatory, an anatomical laboratory and large botanical and Zoological gardens were available. Celebrated scholars, members of the various faculties, were domiciled within the halls of the Museum and received stipends or salaries from the government. The study of mathematics, astronomy, poetry and medicine was especially favored (even vivisection upon criminals being common); Alexandrian architects were sought the world over; Alexandrian inventors were almost equally famous; the influence of Alexandrian art can still be marked in Pompeii and an Alexandrian painter was a hated rival of Apelles. Here Euclid wrote his Elements of Geometry; here Archimedes, "that greatest mathematical and inventive genius of antiquity," made his spectacular discoveries in hydrostatics and hydraulics; here Eratosthenes calculated the size of the earth and made his other memorable discoveries; while Ptolemy studied here for 40 years and published an explanation of the stellar universe which was accepted by scientists for 14 centuries, and established mathematical theories which are yet the basis of trigonometry. "Ever since this epoch the conceptions of the sphericity of the earth, its poles, axis, the equator, the arctic and antarctic circles, the equinoctial points, the solstices, the inequality of climate on the earth's surface, have been current notions among scientists. The mechanism of the lunar phases was perfectly understood, and careful though not wholly successful calculations were made of inter-sidereal distances. On the other hand literature and art flourished under the careful protection of the court. Literature and its history, philology and criticism became sciences" (Alexandria Weber). It may be claimed that in literature no special originality was displayed though the earliest "love storms" and pastoral poetry date from this period (Mahaffy); yet the literature of the Augustan Age cannot be understood "without due appreciation of the character of the Alexandrian school" (EB, 11th ed.), while in editing texts and in copying and translating manuscripts inconceivable patience and erudition were displayed. Our authorized texts of Homer and other classic writers come from Alexandria not from Athens. All famous books brought into Egypt were sent to the library to be copied. The statement of Josephus that Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247) requested the Jews to translate the Old Testament into Greek is not incredible. It was in accordance with the custom of that era. Ptol. Euergetes is said to have sent to Athens for the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, etc., and when these were transcribed, sent back beautiful copies to Greece and kept the originals! No library in the world except the prophetic library in Jerusalem was ever as valuable as the two Alexandrian libraries. The story that the Arabs burned it in the 7th century is discredited and seemingly disproved (Butler). At any rate, after this period we hear of great private libraries in Alexandria, but the greatest literary wonder of the world has disappeared.ISBE Alexandria.9

5. Influence on Philosophy: Though no department of philosophy was established in the Museum, nevertheless from the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD it was the center of gravity in the philosophic world. Here Neo-Pythagoreanism arose. Here Neo-Platonism, that contemplative and mystical reaction against the materialism of the Stoics, reached its full flower. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of the latter upon religious thought. In it the profoundest Aryan speculations were blended with the sublimest Semitic concepts. Plato was numbered among the prophets. Greece here acknowledged the Divine Unity to which the Old Testament was pledged. Here the Jew acknowledged that Athens as truly as Jerusalem had taught a vision of God. This was the first attempt to form a universal religion. The Alexandrian philosophy was the Elijah to prepare the way for a Saviour of the world. The thought of both Sadducee and Pharisee was affected by it and much late pre-Christian Jewish literature is saturated with it. Neo-Platonism drew attention to the true relation between matter and spirit, good and evil, finite and infinite; it showed the depth of antagonism between the natural and spiritual, the real and ideal; it proclaimed the necessity of some mystic union between the human and the Divine. It stated but could not solve the problem. Its last word was escape, not reconciliation (Ed. Caird). Neo-Platonism was the "germ out of which Christian theology sprang" (Caird) though later it became an adverse force. Notwithstanding its dangerous teaching concerning evil, it was on the whole favorable to piety, being the forerunner of mysticism and sympathetic with the deepest, purest elements Of a spiritual religion.ISBE Alexandria.10

6. Christian Church in Alexandria: According to all tradition, Mark the evangelist, carried the gospel to Alexandria, and his body rested here until removed to Venice, 828 AD. From this city Christianity reached all Egypt and entered Nubia, Ethiopia and Abyssinia. During the 4th century, ten councils were held in Alexandria, it being theological and ecclesiastical center of Christendom. The first serious persecution of Christians by heathen occurred here under Decius (251) and was followed by many others, the one under Diocletian (303-11) being so savage that the native Coptic church still dates its era from it. When the Christians reached political power they used the same methods of controversy, wrecking the Caesarion in 366 and the Serapeum twenty-five years later. Serapis (Osiris-Apis) was the best beloved of all the native deities. His temple was built of most precious marbles and filled with priceless sculptures, while in its cloisters was a library second only to the Great Library of the Museum. When Christianity became the state religion of Egypt the native philosophers, moved by patriotism, rallied to the support of Serapis. But Theodosius (391) prohibited idolatry, and led by the bishop, the Serapeum was seized, and smitten by a soldier's battle-axe, the image--which probably represented the old heathen religion at its best--was broken to pieces, and dragged through the streets. That day, as Steindorff well puts it, "Egyp paganism received its death blow; the Egyptian religion fell to pieces" (History of Egypt). Thereafter heathen worship hid itself in the dens and caves of the earth. Even secret allegiance to Serapis brought persecution and sometimes death. The most appalling tragedy of this kind occurred in 415 when Hypatia, the virgin philosopher, celebrated equally for beauty, virtue and learning, was dragged by a mob to the cathedral, stripped, and torn to pieces before the altar. Some of the greatest Christian leaders used all their influence against such atrocities, but the Egyptian Christians were always noted for their excitability. They killed heretics easily, but they would themselves be killed rather than renounce the very slightest and most intangible theological tenet. It only needed the change of a word e.g. in the customary version to raise a riot (Expos, VII, 75). Some curious relics of the early Egyptian church have very recently come to light. The oldest autographic Christian letter known (3rd century) proves that at that time the church was used as a bank, and its ecclesiastics (who, whether priests or bishops, were called "popes") were expected to help the country merchants in their dealings with the Roman markets. Some sixty letters of the 4th century written to a Christian cavalry officer in the Egyptian army are also preserved, while papyri and ostraca from circa 600 AD show that at this time no deacon could be ordained without having first learned by heart as much as an entire Gospel or 25 Psalms and two epistles of Paul, while a letter from a bishop of this period is filled with Scripture, as he anathematizes the "oppressor of the poor," who is likened unto him who spat in the face of our Lord on the cross and smote Him on the head (Adolph Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, etc., 1910). Oppression of Jews and heretics was not, however, forbidden and during the 5th and 6th centuries. Egypt was a battle-field in which each sect persecuted every other. Even when the Arabs under the caliph Omar captured the city on Good Friday (641), Easter Day was spent by the orthodox in torturing supposed heretics! The next morning the city was evacuated and Jews and Coptics received better treatment from the Arabs than they had from the Roman or Greek ecclesiastics. After the Arab conquest the Coptic church, being released from persecution, prospered and gained many converts even from the Mohammedans. But the Saracenic civilization and religion steadily displaced the old, and the native learning and native religion soon disappeared into the desert. By the 8th century, Arabic had taken the place of Greek and Coptic, not only in public documents but in common speech. Then for 1,000 years the Egyptian church remained without perceptible influence on culture or theology. But its early influence was immeasurable and can still be marked in Christian art, architecture and ritual as well as in philosophy and theology. Perhaps its most visible influence was in the encouragement of image-reverence and asceticism. It is suggestive that the first hermit (Anthony) was a native Egyptian, and the first founder of a convent (Pachomius) was a converted Egyptian (heathen) monk. Today Alexandria has again become a Christian metropolis containing Coptics, Romans, Greeks, Armenians, Maronites, Syrians, Chaldeans and Protestants. The Protestants are represented by the Anglican church, the Scotch Free church, the evangelical church of Germany and the United Presbyterian church of the U.S. (For minute divisions see Catholic Encyclopedia)ISBE Alexandria.11

7. Catechetical School in Alexandria: The first theological school of Christendom was founded in Alexandria. It was probably modeled after earlier Gnostic schools established for the study of religious philosophy. It offered a three years' course. There were no fees, the lecturers being supported by gifts from rich students. Pantaenus, a converted Stoic philosopher, was its first head (180). He was followed by Clement (202) and by Origen (232) under whom the school reached its zenith. It always stood for the philosophical vindication of Christianity. Among its greatest writers were Julius Africanus (215), Dionysius (265), Gregory (270), Eusebius (315), Athanasius (373) and Didymus (347), but Origen (185-254) was its chief glory; to him belongs the honor of defeating paganism and Gnosticism with their own weapons; he gave to the church a "scientific consciousness," his threefold interpretation of Scripture affected Biblical exegesis clear down to the last century. Arius was a catechist in this institution, and Athanasius, the "father of orthodoxy" and "theological center of the Nicene age" (Schaff), though not officially connected with the catechetical school was greatly affected by it, having been bred and trained in Alexandria. The school was closed toward the end of the 4th century because of theological disturbances in Egypt, but its work was continued from Caesarea and other centers, affecting profoundly Western teachers like Jerome and Ambrose, and completely dominating Eastern thought. From the first there was a mystical and Docetic tendency visible, while its views of inspiration and methods of interpretation, including its constant assumption of a secret doctrine for the qualified initiate, came legitimately from Neo-Platonism. For several centuries after the school disbanded its tenets were combated by the "school of Antioch," but by the 8th century the Alexandrian theology was accepted by the whole Christian world, east and west.ISBE Alexandria.12

LITERATURE.ISBE Alexandria.13

Besides works mentioned in the text see especially: Petrie, History of Egypt (1899), V,VI , Mahaffy, Empire of the Ptolemies (1895), Progress of Hellenism (1905); Butler, Arab Conquest of Egypt (1902); Ernst Sieglin, Ausgrabungen in Alexandrien (1908); Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1895-1900), and in New Sch-Herz (1910); Inge, Alexandrian Theology in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (1908); Ed. Caird, Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (1904); Pfleiderer, Philosophy and Development of Religion (1894); Schaff, History of Christian Church (1884-1910); Zogheb, Etudes sur l'ancienne Alexandrie (1909).ISBE Alexandria.14

Camden M. CobernISBE Alexandria.15

Alexandrians

Alexandrians - al-eg-zan'-dri-ans (Alexandreis): Jews of Alexandria, who had, with the Libertines and Cyrenians, a synagogue in Jerusalem. They were among those who disputed with Stephen (Acts 6:9).ISBE Alexandrians.2

ALGUM or ALMUGISBE Alexandrians.3

al'-gum, ('algummim (2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10 f); ('almuggim, 1 Kings 10:11 f)): It is generally supposed that these two names refer to one kind of tree, the consonants being transposed as is not uncommon in Semitic words. Solomon sent to Hiram, king of Tyre, saying, "Send me also cedar-trees, fir-trees, and algum-trees, out of Lebanon" (2 Chronicles 2:8). In 1 Kings 10:11 it is said that the navy of Hiram "that brought gold from Ophir, brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug-trees and precious stones." In the parallel passage in 2 Chronicles 9:10 it is said that "algum-trees and precious stones" were brought. From this wood "the king made .... pillars for the house of Yahweh, and for the king's house, harps also and psalteries for the singers: there came no such almug-trees, nor were seen, unto this day" (1 Kings 10:12). The wood was evidently very precious and apparently came from East Asia--unless we suppose from 2 Chronicles 2:8 that it actually grew on Lebanon, which is highly improbable; it was evidently a fine, close grained wood, suitable for carving. Tradition says that this was the famous sandal wood, which was in ancient times put to similar uses in India and was all through the ages highly prized for its color, fragrance, durability and texture. It is the wood of a tree, Pterocar pussantalinus (N.D. Santalaceae), which grows to a height of 25 to 30 feet; it is a native of the mountains of Malabar.ISBE Alexandrians.4

E. W. G. MastermanISBE Alexandrians.5

Aliah

Aliah - a-li'-a (`alyah): One of the dukes, or heads of thousands of Edom (1 Chronicles 1:51). In Genesis 36:40 the name is Alvah (`alwah), the only difference being the change of the weaker w, of Gen to the somewhat stronger, y, of the later Chronicles, a change which is not infrequent in Hebrew. He is not to be confused, as in HDB, with the Alian of the same chapter.ISBE Aliah.2

Alian

Alian - a-li'-an (`alyan): A descendant of Esau, and son of Shobal (1 Chronicles 1:40). In the corresponding earlier genealogy (Genesis 36:23) the same person is given as Alvan (`alwan), the change of the third consonant being a simple one, common to Hebrew, occurring similarly in Aliah (which see). Alian is not to be identified with Aliah, since the groups of names in which these occur are quite different, and the context in each case is not the same.ISBE Alian.2

Alien

Alien - al'-yen: Found in the King James Version for ger, (Exodus 18:3) = "guest," hence: "foreigner," "sojourner" the Revised Version (British and American); also for nekhar (Isaiah 61:5) = "foreign," "a foreigner" the Revised Version (British and American) (concrete), "heathendom" (abstract), "alien," "strange" (-er), and for nokhri (Deuteronomy 14:21 the Revised Version (British and American) "foreigner"; compare Job 19:15; Psalms 69:8; Lamentations 5:2)--"strange," in a variety of degrees and meanings: "foreign," "non-relative," "adulterous," "different," "wonderful," "alien," "outlandish," "strange." In the New Testament we find apellotriomenos (Ephesians 4:18; Colossians 1:21) = "being alienated," and allotrios (Hebrews 11:34) = "another's," "not one's own," hence: "foreign," "not akin," "hostile." In the Old Testament the expression was taken in its literal sense, referring to those who were not Israelites--the heathen; in the New Testament it is given a figurative meaning, as indicating those who have not become naturalized in the kingdom of God, hence are outside of Christ and the blessing of the gospel.ISBE Alien.2

Frank E. HirschISBE Alien.3

Alienate

Alienate - al'-yen-at (`abhar; apallotrioo, "to estrange from"): In Old Testament, for the break between husband and wife caused by unfaithfulness to the marriage vow (Jeremiah 6:8; Ezekiel 23:17); also applied to the diversion of property (Ezekiel 48:14). In New Testament, spiritually, for the turning of the soul from God (Ephesians 2:12; Colossians 1:21). The Greek allotrios, which is the root of the verb, is the opposite of id-i-os, "one's own." The word implies a former state, whence the person or thing has departed, and that, generally, by deterioration.ISBE Alienate.2

Alive

Alive - a-liv' (chai, "living"; zao, "to live," anazao, "to live again"): These Hebrew and Greek originals are the chief terms for life in both Testaments. They cover all life, including soul and spirit, although primarily referring to physical vitality. Striking examples may be cited: "Is your father yet alive?" (Genesis 43:7); "To whom he also showed himself alive" (Acts 1:3). Often used of God: "the living God" (Joshua 3:10); also of the resurrection life: "In Christ shall all be made alive" (1 Corinthians 15:22); of the soul's regenerate life: "Reckon .... yourselves .... alive unto God," "as those that are alive from the dead" (Romans 6:11:Romans 13:1-14 the King James Version). The term is vital with the creative energy of God; the healing, redemptive, resurrection life of Christ; the renewing and recreative power of the Holy Spirit.ISBE Alive.2

Dwight M. PrattISBE Alive.3

All

All - ol: Used in various combinations, and with different meanings.ISBE All.2

(1) All along, "Weeping all along as he went" (Jeremiah 41:6), i.e. throughout the whole way he went, feigning equal concern with the men from Shiloh, etc., for the destruction of the Temple, so as to put them off their guard.ISBE All.3

(2) All in all, "That God may be all in all" (1 Corinthians 15:28, Greek: panta en pasin, "all things in all (persons and) things"). "The universe, with all it comprises, will wholly answer to God's will and reflect His mind" (Dummelow).ISBE All.4

(3) All one, "It is all one" (Job 9:22), "it makes no difference whether I live or die."ISBE All.5

(4) At all, "If thy father miss me at all" (1 Samuel 20:6), "in any way," "in the least."ISBE All.6

(5) All to, "All to brake his skull" (Judges 9:53 the King James Version) an obsolete form signifying "altogether"; "broke his skull in pieces."ISBE All.7

(6) Often used indefinitely of a large number or a great part, "All the cattle of Egypt died" (Exodus 9:6; compare Exodus 9:19, 25); "all Judea, and all the region round about" (Matthew 3:5); "that all the world should be enrolled" (Luke 2:1); "all Asia and the world" (Acts 19:27); "All (people) verily held John to be a prophet" (Mark 11:32).ISBE All.8

M. O. EvansISBE All.9

Allammelech

Allammelech - a-lam'-e-lek ('allammelekh, "oak of a king"): A town in the tribe of Asher, the location of which is not known (Joshua 19:26; the King James Version Alammelech).ISBE Allammelech.2

Allar

Allar - al'-ar (the King James Version, Aalar; Aalar): Occurring once (1 Esdras 5:36) and used apparently to indicate a place from which certain Jews came on the return from captivity, who could not prove their lineage, and were excluded for this reason from the privileges of the priesthood. HDB identifies with Immer of Ezra 2:59 and Nehemiah 7:61 (which see), but this is not at all certain.ISBE Allar.2

Allay

Allay - a-la' (heniach, "to cause to rest," "soothe": "Gentleness allayeth (lit., "pacifieth") great offenses" (Ecclesiastes 10:4)): The word is applied to what "excites, disturbs and makes uneasy" (Smith, Synonyms Discriminated, 106).ISBE Allay.2

Allege

Allege - a-lej' ("paratithemi," "to set forth," Acts 17:3): It is not used in the English Bible in its more modern and usual sense, "to assert," but is about equivalent to "to prove."ISBE Allege.2

Allegiance

Allegiance - a-le'-jans (mishmereth, "a charge," from shamar, "to keep," 1 Chronicles 12:29): the Revised Version, margin gives as literal meaning, "kept the charge of the house of Saul," which revisers consider figurative for "maintaining their loyalty and fidelity," i.e. "allegiance."ISBE Allegiance.2

Allegory

Allegory - al'-e-go-ri: The term allegory, being derived from allo agoreuein, signifying to say something different from what the words themselves imply, can etymologically be applied to any figurative form of expression of thought. In actual usage in theology, the term is employed in a restricted sense, being used however in three ways, namely, rhetorically, hermeneutically and homiletically. In the first-mentioned sense it is the ordinary allegory of rhetoric, which is usually defined as an extended or continued metaphor, this extension expanding from two or more statements to a whole volume, like Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Allegories of this character abound in the Scriptures, both in Old Testament and in New Testament. Instructive examples of this kind are found in Psalms 80:8-19; Ecclesiastes 12:3-7; John 10:1-16; Ephesians 6:11-17. According to traditional interpretation of both the Jewish exegesis and of the Catholic and Protestant churches the entire book of Canticles is such an allegory. The subject is discussed in full in Terry's Biblical Hermeneutics, etc., chapter vii, 214-38.ISBE Allegory.2

In the history of Biblical exegesis allegory represents a distinct type of interpretation, dating back to pre-Christian times, practiced particularly by the Alexandrian Jews, and adopted by the early Church Fathers and still practiced and defended by the Roman Catholic church. This method insists that the literal sense, particularly of historical passages, does not exhaust the divinely purposed meaning of such passages, but that these latter also include a deeper and higher spiritual and mystical sense. The fourfold sense ascribed to the Scriptures finds its expression in the well-known saying: Littera gesta docet; quid credas, allegorica; moralis, quid agas, quid speres, anagogica ("The letter shows things done; what you are to believe, the allegoric; what you are to do, the moral; what you are to hope, the anagogic"), according to which the allegorical is the hidden dogmatical meaning to be found in every passage. Cremer, in his Biblico-Theological New Testament Lexicon, shows that this method of finding a hidden thought behind the simple statement of a passage, although practiced so extensively on the Jewish side by Aristobulus and especially Philo, is not of Jewish origin, but was, particularly by the latter, taken from the Alexandrian Greeks (who before this had interpreted Greek mythology as the expression of higher religious conceptions) and applied to a deeper explanation of Old Testament historical data, together with its theophanies, anthropomorphisms, anthropopathies, and the like, which in their plain meaning were regarded as unworthy of a place in the Divine revelation of the Scriptures. Such allegorizing became the common custom of the early Christian church, although not practiced to the same extent in all sections, the Syrian church exhibiting the greatest degree of sobriety in this respect. In this only Jewish precedent was followed; the paraphrases commonly known as the Targum, the Midrash, and later in its most extreme form in the Kabbalah, all showed this mark of eisegesis instead of exegesis. This whole false hermeneutical principle and its application originated doubtless in an unhistorical conception of what the Scriptures are and how they originated. It is characteristic of the New Testament, and one of the evidences of its inspiration, that in the entire Biblical literature of that age, both Jewish and Christian, it is the only book that does not practice allegorizing but abides by the principle of the literal interpretation. Nor is Paul's exegesis in Galatians 4:21-31 an application of false allegorical methods. Here in Galatians 4:24 the term allegoroumena need not be taken in the technical sense as expressive of a method of interpretation, but merely as a paraphrase of the preceding thought; or, if taken technically, the whole can be regarded as an argumentum ad hominem, a way of demonstration found also elsewhere in Paul's writings. The Protestant church, beginning with Luther, has at all tunes rejected this allegorizing and adhered to the safe and sane principle, practiced by Christ and the entire New Testament, namely, Sensum ne inferas, sed efferas ("Do not carry a meaning into (the Scriptures) but draw it out of (the Scriptures)"). It is true that the older Protestant theology still adheres to a sensus mysticus in the Scriptures, but by this it means those passages in which the sense is conveyed not per verba (through words), but per res verbis descriptas ("through things described by means of words"), as e.g. in the parable and the type.ISBE Allegory.3

In homiletics allegorizing is applied to the method which draws spiritual truths from common historical statements, as e.g. when the healing of a leper by Christ is made the basis of an exposition of the healing of the soul by the Saviour. Naturally this is not interpretation in the exegetical sense.ISBE Allegory.4

G. H. SchoddeISBE Allegory.5

Alleluia

Alleluia - al-e-loo'-ya.ISBE Alleluia.2

See HALLELUJAH.ISBE Alleluia.3

Allemeth

Allemeth - al'-e-meth (`allemeth, "concealment"; the King James Version Alemeth, 1 Chronicles 6:60): Name of a town in tribe of Benjamin, near Anathoth, one of the cities given to the sons of Aaron, the same as Almon of Joshua 21:18. The the King James Version ALEMETH (which see) is based upon the Hebrew reading `alemeth. Its site is the modern Almit, a village a short distance Northeast of Anathoth.ISBE Allemeth.2

Alliance

Alliance - a-li'-ans.ISBE Alliance.2

1. In the Patriarchal Stories: Frequent references are made to alliances between the patriarchs and foreigners. Abraham is reported to have had "confederates" among the chiefs of the Canaanites (Genesis 14:13). He also allied with Abimelech, king of Gerar (Genesis 21:22-34). Isaac's alliance with Abimelech (Genesis 26:26-34), which is offered as an explanation of the name Beer-sheba (Genesis 26:33), appears to be a variant of the record of alliance between Abraham and Abimelech. Jacob formed an alliance with Laban, the Syrian (Genesis 31:44-54), by which Gilead was established as a boundary line between Israel and Aramaic. These treaties refer, in all probability, to the early period of Israel's history, and throw a good deal of light upon the relation between Israel and the Philistines and the Syrians immediately after the conquest of Canaan.ISBE Alliance.3

2. In Pre-Canaanitic History: The only reference to an alliance between Israel and foreign people prior to the conquest of Canaan, that might be regarded as historical, is that made between Israel and the Kenite tribes at the foot of Sinai, the precise nature of which, however, is not very clearly indicated. Such alliances led to intermarriages between the members of the allied tribes. Thus Moses married a Kenite woman (Judges 1:16; 4:11). The patriarchal marriages refer to the existing conditions after the conquest. Possibly one more alliance belonging to that period is that between Israel and Moab (Numbers 25:1-3). According to the narrative, Israel became attached to the daughters of Moab, at Shittim, and was led astray after Baal-peor. Its historicity is proven from the prophetic allusions to this event (compare Hosea 9:10; Micah 6:5).ISBE Alliance.4

3. During the Conquest: The invading hordes of Israel met with strong opposition on the part of the natives of Palestine (Judges 1:21, 27-36). In time, alliances were formed with some of them, which generally led, as might be expected, to considerable trouble. One concrete illustration is preserved in the story of the Gibeonites (Joshua 9:1-27). Intermarriages were frequent. The tribe of Judah thus became consolidated through the alliance and the amalgamation with the Kenites and Calebites (Judges 1:10-16). These relations between Israel and the Canaanites threatened the preservation of Yahwism.ISBE Alliance.5

4. The Monarchy: Prohibitory measures were adopted in the legal codes with a view to Jewish separateness and purity (Exodus 23:32; 12, 15; Deuteronomy 7:2; compare Judges 2:2-3; Leviticus 18:3-4; 20:22 f).ISBE Alliance.6

But at a very early date in the history of the Jewish kingdom the official heads of the people formed such alliances and intermarried. David became an ally to Achish of Gath (1 Samuel 27:2-12) and later on with Abner, which led to the consolidation of Judah and Israel into one kingdom (2 Samuel 3:17-21; 2 Samuel 5:1-3). It appears likewise that Toi, king of Hamath, formed an alliance with David (2 Samuel 9:10) and that Hiram of Tyre was his ally (1 Kings 55:11Ki 2:1-46a). Alliances wrath foreign nations became essential to the progress of trade and commerce during the reign of Solomon. Two of his treaties are recorded: one with Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings 5:12-18; 1 Kings 9:11-14) and one with Pharaoh, king of Egypt (1 Kings 9:16).ISBE Alliance.7

5. The Divided Kingdom: After the disruption, Shishak of Egypt invaded Judea, and probably also Israel. This meant an abrogation of the treaty existing between Israel and Egypt during the reign of Solomon. In consequence of the war between the two kingdoms, Asa formed an alliance with Benhadad of Syria (1 Kings 15:18-20). Later on Ahab sought an alliance with Ben-hadad (1 Kings 20:31-34). Friendly relations ensued between Israel and Judah, during the reign of Jehoshaphat, which continued to the close of the dynasty of Omri (1 Kings 22:2-4, 50; 2 Kings 3:7). With the accession of Jehu, hostilities were resumed. In the Syro-Ephraimitic war, Israel was allied with Syria, and Judah with Assyria (2 Kings 16:6-9; Isaiah 7:1-25). This opened the way to the Assyrian power into both kingdoms. Relief against Assyria was sought in Egypt; Hoshea rebelled against Shalmaneser, and allied with So (Sevechus, the Shabaka of the 25th Dynasty) and thus brought about the fall of Samaria.ISBE Alliance.8

6. The Kingdom of Judah: Hezekiah likewise sought an alliance with So, but derived no assistance from him. He is recorded to have formed friendly relations with Berodach-baladan of Babylon (2 Kings 20:12-18). These alliances resulted in the introduction of foreign cults into Jerusalem (2 Kings 16:10-11). During the reign of Manasseh, Yahwism was seriously threatened by foreign religious practices (2 Kings 21:2-9). The protesting spirit against the prevailing conditions found expression in the Deuteronomic code, which emphasizes the national policy. Josiah fought against Pharaoh-necoh as an ally of Assyria (2 Kings 23:29). Jehoahaz continued the Assyrian alliance and was dethroned in consequence by Pharaoh-necoh (2 Kings 23:33). Jehoiakin was disposed to be friendly with Egypt, and even after his subjection to Nebuchadnezzar, he remained loyal to the Pharaoh (2 Kings 23:35). Zedekiah came to the throne as an ally of Babylon. When he broke this alliance, the destruction of Jerusalem resulted (2 Kings 25:1-30).ISBE Alliance.9

7. In Post-exilic Times: Judas Maccabeus sought an alliance with the Romans (1 Maccabees 8; Josephus, Ant, XII, x, 6) which was renewed by Jonathan (1 Maccabees 12:1; Ant, XIII, v, 8) and by Simon (1 Maccabees 15:17; Ant, XIII, vii, 3). Treaties were concluded with the Spartans (1 Maccabees 12:2; 14:20; Ant, XII, iv, 10; XIII, v, 8). The Roman alliance was again renewed by Hyrcanus about 128 BC (Ant., XIII, ix, 2). This alliance proved to be of fatal consequence to the independence of the Jews (Ant., XIV, iv, 4; and xiv, 5). For the rites connected with the formation of the earlier alliances, see COVENANT.ISBE Alliance.10

Samuel CohonISBE Alliance.11

Allied

Allied - a-lid' (qarobh, "near," as in Genesis 45:10; Exodus 13:17, etc.): Nehemiah 13:4 refers either to family ties, as in Ruth 2:20, or to intimate association.ISBE Allied.2

Allom

Allom - al'-om (Allon): the Revised Version (British and American) ALLON (which see): One of the families of the "servants of Solomon," whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon in the First Return, 537 BC (1 Esdras 5:34). The name is not found in the parallel lists of Ezra and Nehemiah, although some have tried to identify with the last name of each list, Ami of Ezra 2:57, and Amon of Nehemiah 7:59. This is not probable.ISBE Allom.2

Allon

Allon - al'-on ('allon, "oak"):ISBE Allon.2

(1) A town in the tribe of Naphtali in northern Palestine (Joshua 19:33), according to the King James Version, which follows some Hebrew texts. It is better however to read with the Revised Version (British and American), "oak" ('elon), rather than as proper noun.ISBE Allon.3

(2) A prominent descendant of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:37).ISBE Allon.4

(3) the Revised Version (British and American) for Allom of the King James Version in 1 Esdras 5:34 (which see).ISBE Allon.5

Allon-bacuth

Allon-bacuth - al'-on-ba'-kuth ('allon bakhuth; the King James Version transliterates Allon-bachuth, al-on-bak'uth, "oak of weeping"): The burial place of Deborah, the nurse of Rebekah (Genesis 35:8); it appears from the narrative that she made her home with Jacob, who had returned from Paddan-aram, and was sojourning at the time at Bethel, in the vicinity of which was the "oak of weeping," under which she was buried.ISBE Allon-bacuth.2

Allow; Allowance

Allow; Allowance - a-lou', a-lou'-ans: The verb "to allow" is used in the King James Version to translate four different Greek words: (1) suneudokeo, "to approve together" (with others) (the Revised Version (British and American) "consent unto"), Luke 11:48. (2) prosdechomai, "to receive to oneself," "admit" (the Revised Version (British and American) "look for," margin "accept"); Acts 24:15. (3) ginosko, "to know," "recognize": "That which I do, I allow not" (the Revised Version (British and American) "I know not"), i.e. "I do not understand what I am doing, my conduct is inexplicable to me" (Grimm-Thayer); Romans 7:15. (4) dokimazo, "to prove," "approve." "Happy is he that condemneth not himself in the thing which he alloweth" (the Revised Version (British and American) "approveth," i.e. in practice), i.e. who is not troubled with scruples; Romans 14:22. Thus the Revised Version (British and American) has removed the verb "allow" in each case in which it occurs in the King James Version, it being somewhat ambiguous in meaning (its original sense, as derived from Latin allocare, "to place," "assign," "grant," being influenced by another word, Latin allaudare, "to praise"). The noun "allowance" occurs in the sense of quantity of food allowed, in 2 Kings 25:30 (King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American)) and the parallel passage Jeremiah 52:34 (RV; "diet" in the King James Version).ISBE Allow; Allowance.2

D. Miall EdwardsISBE Allow; Allowance.3

Alloy

Alloy - a-loi' (bedhil): In Isaiah 1:25 the Revised Version, margin; translated "tin" in the text. Elsewhere in both versions bedhil is translated TIN (which see).ISBE Alloy.2

Allure

Allure - a-lur' (pathah, "to persuade," "woo," "entice"; deleazo, "to entrap," "lay a bait"):ISBE Allure.2

(1) "I will allure her, and bring her into the wilderness" (Hosea 2:14), with evident reference to the Assyrian invasion and the devastation of the land, followed up by the Exile. Thus would Yahweh entice Israel to repent by gentle punishment; then would follow her restoration and the outpouring of His love (Hosea 2:14 ff).ISBE Allure.3

(2) "They allure through the lusts of the flesh" (2 Peter 2:18, the Revised Version (British and American) "entice"). Wicked men allure to destruction; God (as above) allures to punishment, repentance and restoration.ISBE Allure.4

M. O. EvansISBE Allure.5