Bukki — Byword
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Bukki — Byword
Bukki - buk'-i (buqqi, "mouth of Jah"):ISBE Bukki.2
(1) A Danite, son of the tribal prince Jogli (Numbers 34:22); he was one of the representative chiefs who assisted in the division of the land.ISBE Bukki.3
(2) Son of Abishua and father of Izzi, a priest, fourth in descent from Aaron, in the line of Eleazar (1 Chronicles 6:5, 51), and ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:4). In 2 Esdras 1:2 the name appears as Borith, and in 1 Esdras 8:2 as Boccas.ISBE Bukki.4
Bukkiah - buk-i'-a (buqqiyahu, "proved of God"): A Levite, son of Heman (1 Chronicles 25:4, 13).ISBE Bukkiah.2
Bul - bul (bul): Name of the 8th month of the Jewish year (1 Kings 6:38). It is of Phoenician origin and signifies the month of rain, the beginning of the rainy season.ISBE Bul.2
Bull, Wild - See ANTELOPE; CATTLE.ISBE Bull, Wild.2
Bull; Bullock - bool, bool'-ok.ISBE Bull; Bullock.2
See CATTLE.ISBE Bull; Bullock.3
Bulls, Jeroboam's - See CALF( GOLDEN).ISBE Bulls, Jeroboam's.2
Bulrush - bool'-rush.ISBE Bulrush.2
Bulrushes, Ark of - See ARK OF BULRUSHES.ISBE Bulrushes, Ark of.2
Bulwark - bool'-wark: The word represents several Hebrew terms (chel, Isaiah 26:1; chelah, Psalms 48:13; matsodh, Ecclesiastes 9:14; matsor, Deuteronomy 20:20). In 2 Chronicles 26:15 the word is translated in the Revised Version (British and American) "battlements."ISBE Bulwark.2
See FORTIFICATION.ISBE Bulwark.3
Bunah - bu'-na (bunah); A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chronicles 2:25).ISBE Bunah.2
Bunch - bunsh: Is used of (1) a "bunch of hyssop" (Exodus 12:22, 'aghuddah); (2) a "cluster of raisins" (2 Samuel 16:1 the King James Version; 1 Chronicles 12:40 the King James Version tsimmuq = "something dried or shriveled"); (3) a "camel's hump" (Isaiah 30:6 the King James Version dabbesheth): of obscure etymology.ISBE Bunch.2
Bundle - bun'-d'-l: Represents in English Versions of the Bible the words tseror, from a verb meaning "cramp" "bind," etc. (Genesis 42:35; 1 Samuel 25:29; Song of Solomon 1:13); tsebheth, from a verb probably meaning "to grasp" (Ruth 2:16); and deseme, from deo, "to tie up," "bind," hence, literally "bundle," just as the English word is derived from "bind" (Matthew 13:30); and plethos, properly "multitude." The custom of binding up precious things in bundles (compare Song of Solomon 1:13) is the basis of the very interesting metaphor in 1 Samuel 25:29: "The soul of my lord shall be bound in the bundle of life with Yahweh thy God," or perhaps better, "in the bundle of the living in the care of Yahweh"--an assurance of perfect safety.ISBE Bundle.2
Bunni - bun'-i (bunni, buni, bunni; compare BANI):ISBE Bunni.2
(1) A Levite (Nehemiah 9:4). The repetition of Bani's name in this passage is probably a scribal error. The Syriac version for the second "Bani" reads "Binnui"; but as, in Nehemiah 10:9 and Nehemiah 12:8, Binnui's name comes, as here, between those of Jeshua and Kadmiel, we should substitute Binnui here for the first Bani. The Septuagint renders all three names as if the Hebrew in each case had been bene, "sons of," reducing the proper names in the verse to five. The names probably stand for chief Levitical houses rather than individuals.ISBE Bunni.3
(2) Another Levite, one of the overseers of the temple, father of Hashabiah, according to Nehemiah 11:15; but, according to 1 Chronicles 9:14, Hashabiah is "of the sons of Merari" The reading in Nehemiah is a corruption of the one in Ch.ISBE Bunni.4
Burden - bur'-dn.ISBE Burden.2
1. In the Old Testament: In the Old Testament more than one word is rendered "burden."ISBE Burden.3
(1) massa', from a root nasa' "he lifted up." Thus literally any load is called massa' (Exodus 23:5; Numbers 4:15, 24, 27 ff; 2 Kings 5:17; 8:9). Figuratively, people are a burden (Numbers 11:11, 17; Deuteronomy 1:12; 2 Samuel 15:33; 19:35). A man may be a burden to himself (Job 7:20). Iniquities are a burden (Psalms 38:4). Taxes may be a burden (Hosea 8:10).ISBE Burden.4
(2) In both the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) massa' is translated "burden," as applied to certain prophetic utterances; but both the American Revised Version, margin and the Revised Version, margin have "oracle." Examples are Isaiah 13:1; 14:28, and often; Jeremiah 23:33, 36, 38, no marginal reading; Ezekiel 12:10; Nahum 1:1; Habakkuk 1:1; Zechariah 9:1; 12:1; Malachi 1:1. As was natural under the circumstances, such oracles usually denounced judgment upon place or people. Hence, probably the translation "burden." But some of these prophetic utterances do not contain denunciation or threat (Zechariah 12:1-14). The passage in Jer, moreover, implies that the prophet used the term in the sense of "oraele," for scoffers are reproved for perverting the word and giving it the meaning "burden." Massa', therefore, means something taken up with solemnity upon the lips, whether threatening or not, and the rendering, "burden," ought most likely to be given up.ISBE Burden.5
The word mas'-eth, of the same derivation as massa', is applied to foolish oracles (Lamentations 2:14 the King James Version, oracles the American Standard Revised Version, burdens the American Revised Version, margin, burdens the Revised Version (British and American), oracles the Revised Version, margin; Amos 5:11, burdens the King James Version, exactions the American Standard Revised Version and the Revised Version (British and American)).ISBE Burden.6
Massa' is used also in Proverbs 30:1 and Proverbs 31:1, and is variously rendered prophecy (the King James Version), oracle (American Revised Version), burden, or the name of the speaker's country (Revised Version margin, the American Revised Version, margin), oracle (Revised Version). The reading is doubtful, but probably the reference is to the speaker's country--"Jakeh, of Massa" (compare Genesis 25:14), "Lemuel king of Massa."ISBE Burden.7
Other words translated "burden" are from the root cabhal, "to bear a load" (Nehemiah 4:17; Psalms 81:6; 1 Kings 11:28; King James Version margin, charge the King James Version, labor the American Standard Revised Version and the Revised Version (British and American), burden the American Revised Version, margin and the Revised Version, margin, Exodus 5:4-5; Exodus 6:6-7; Isaiah 10:27; 14:25).ISBE Burden.8
2. In the New Testament: In the New Testament several Greek words mean "burden."ISBE Burden.9
(1) baros, "something heavy." Burdens of the day (Matthew 20:12), the burden of duty to be borne, a difficult requirement (Acts 15:28; Revelation 2:24). The burden of one's moral infirmities (Galatians 6:2).ISBE Burden.10
(2) phortion, "something to be borne." The obligation which Christ imposes (Matthew 11:30); the legal ordinances of the Pharisees (Luke 11:46); a man's individual responsibility (Galatians 6:5). Whether any clear and consistent distinction can be made between these two words is doubtful. Probably, however, phortion refers to the load as something to be borne, whether heavy or light, whilst baros may be an oppressive load. According to Lightfoot baros may suggest a load of which a man may rightly rid himself should occasion serve, but phortion a burden which he is expected to bear, as every soldier carries his own pack. But most likely too much weight should not be given to these distinctions.ISBE Burden.11
(3) There is also the word gomos, "the freight" of a ship (Acts 21:3); compare ogkos, weight or encumbrance which impedes the runner's progress to the goal (Hebrews 12:1), with particular reference to the superfluous flesh which an athlete seeks to get rid of in training (compare 1 Corinthians 9:24-27), and figuratively whatever hinders the full development of Christian manhood.ISBE Burden.12
George Henry TreverISBE Burden.13
Burglary - bur'-gla-ri.ISBE Burglary.2
Burial - ber'-i-al (qebhurah; compare New Testament to entaphidsai):ISBE Burial.2
I. IMMEDIATE BURIAL CONSIDERED URGENTISBE Burial.3
1. Reasons for ThisISBE Burial.4
2. The Burial of JesusISBE Burial.5
3. The Usual TimeISBE Burial.6
4. Duties of Next of KinISBE Burial.7
II. PREPARATIONS FOR BURIALISBE Burial.8
1. Often Informal and HastyISBE Burial.9
2. Usually with More CeremonyISBE Burial.10
3. Contrasts between Jewish Customs and Other Peoples'ISBE Burial.11
III. ON THE WAY TO THE GRAVEISBE Burial.14
1. Coffins UnknownISBE Burial.15
2. Professional MournersISBE Burial.16
IV. AT THE GRAVEISBE Burial.17
1. Graves Dug in the EarthISBE Burial.18
2. Family Tombs. Later CustomsISBE Burial.19
3. Sealed StonesISBE Burial.20
4. Stated Times of MourningISBE Burial.21
5. Excessive MourningISBE Burial.22
V. FAILURE TO RECEIVE BURIAL A CALAMITY OR JUDGMENTISBE Burial.24
VI. PLACES OF BURIAL: HOW MARKEDISBE Burial.25
It is well to recall at the outset that there are points of likeness and of marked contrast between oriental and occidental burial customs in general, as well as between the burial customs of ancient Israel and those of other ancient peoples. These will be brought out, or suggested later in this article.ISBE Burial.27
I. Immediate Burial Considered Urgent. 1. Reasons for This: The burial of the dead in the East in general was and is often effected in such a way as to suggest to the westerner indecent haste. Dr. Post says that burial among the people of Syria today seldom takes place later than ten hours after death, often earlier; but, he adds, "the rapidity of decomposition, the excessive violence of grief, the reluctance of Orientals to allow the dead to remain long in the houses of the living, explain what seems to us the indecency of haste." This still requires the survivors, as in the case of Abraham on the death of Sarah, to bury their dead out of their sight (Genesis 23:1-4); and it in part explains the quickness with which the bodies of Nadab and Abihu were Carried out of the camp (Leviticus 10:4), and those of Ananias and Sapphira were hastened off to burial (Acts 5:1-11). Then, of course, the defilement to which contact with a dead body gave occasion, and the judgment that might come upon a house for harboring the body of one dying under a Divine judgment, further explain such urgency and haste.ISBE Burial.28
2. The Burial of Jesus: It was in strict accordance with such customs and the provision of the Mosaic law (Deuteronomy 21:23; compare Galatians 3:13), as well as in compliance with the impulses of true humanity, that Joseph of Arimathea went to Pilate and begged the body of Jesus for burial on the very day of the crucifixion (Matthew 27:39 ff).ISBE Burial.29
3. The Usual Time: The dead are often in their graves, according to present custom, within two or three hours after death. Among oriental Jews burial takes place, if possible, within twenty-four hours after death, and frequently on the day of death. Likewise Mohammedans bury their dead on the day of death, if death takes place in the morning; but if in the afternoon or at night, not until the following day.ISBE Burial.30
4. Duties of Next of Kin: As soon as the breath is gone the oldest son, or failing him, the nearest of kin present, closes the eyes of the dead (compare Genesis 46:4, "and Joseph shall put his hand upon thine eyes"). The mouth, too, is closed and the jaws are bound up (compare John 11:44, "and his face was bound about with a napkin"). The death is announced, as it was of old, by a tumult of lamentation preceded by a shrill cry, and the weeping and wailing of professional mourners (compare Mark 5:38 ff).ISBE Burial.31
II. Preparations for Burial. 1. Often Informal and Hasty: These are often informal and hasty. Under the tyranny of such customs as those noted, it is often impossible to make them elaborate. Canon Tristram says: "As interments take place at latest on the evening of the day of death, and frequently at night, there can be no elaborate preparations. The corpse, dressed in such clothes as were worn in life, is stretched on a bier with a cloth thrown over it, until carried forth for burial" (Eastern Customs, 94). In Acts 5:6 we read of Ananias, "The young men .... wrapped him round, and they carried him out and buried him." "What they did," as Dr. Nicol says, "was likely this: they unfastened his girdle, and then taking the loose under-garment and the wide cloak which was worn above it, used them as a winding-sheet to cover the corpse from head to foot." In other words, there was little ceremony and much haste.ISBE Burial.33
2. Usually with More Ceremony: Usually, however, there was more ceremony and more time taken. Missionaries and natives of Syria tell us that it is still customary to wash the body (compare Acts 9:37), anoint it with aromatic ointments (compare John 12:7; 19:39; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:1), swathe hands and feet in grave-bands, usually of linen (John 111:4Joh 4:1-54a), and cover the face or bind it about with a napkin or handkerchief (John 111:4Joh 4:1-54b). It is still common to place in the wrappings of the body aromatic spices and other preparations to retard decomposition. Thus the friends at Bethany prepared the body of Lazarus, and he came forth wrapped in grave-bands and with a napkin bound about his face. And, we are further told that after the burial of Jesus, Nicodemus brought "a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about a hundred pounds," and that they "took the body of Jesus, and bound it in linen cloths with the spices, as the custom of the Jews is to bury," and that Mary Magdalene and two other women brought spices for the same purpose (John 19:39-40; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:1). That this was a very old custom is witnessed by such passages as 2 Chronicles 16:14, where it is said that Asa, the king, was laid "in the bed which was filled with sweet odors and divers kinds of spices prepared by the perfumers' art" (compare John 12:3, 7; Sirach 38:16). From Acts 5:6; 8:2 it appears that there was in later times a confraternity of young men whose business it was to attend to these proprieties and preparations on behalf of the dead; but it was probably only in exceptional cases that they were called upon to act. Certainly such ministries ordinarily devolved, as they do now, upon loving relatives and friends, and mostly women, among the Jews as well as among the Greeks. The practice among the Greeks, both by similarity and contrast, affords an interesting illustration. The following instance is aptly cited in D B (art. "Burial"): Electra believing Orestes to be dead and his ashes placed in the sepulchral urn (Soph. Electra 1136-52), addresses him thus: "Woe is me! These loving hands have not washed or decked thy corpse, nor taken, as was meet, their sad burden from the flaming pyre. At the hands of strangers, hapless one, thou hast had those rites, and so art come to us, a little dust in a narrow urn."ISBE Burial.34
3. Contrasts between Jewish Customs and Other Peoples':ISBE Burial.35
This brings us to note two marked contrasts between customs in Israel and among other peoples.ISBE Burial.36
(1) Cremation: With the Greeks it was customary to cremate the dead (see CREMATION); but there was nothing in Jewish practice exactly corresponding to this. Tacitus (Hist. v.5) expressly says, in noting the contrast with Roman custom, that it was a matter of piety with the Jews "to bury rather than to burn dead bodies." The burning of the bodies of Saul and his sons by the men of Jabesh-Gilead (1 Samuel 31:11-13) seems to have been rather a case of emergency, than of conformity to any such custom, as the charred bones were buried by the same men under the tamarisk at Jabesh, and later, by David's order, removed and laid to rest in the sepulcher of Kish (2 Samuel 21:12-14). According to the Mosaic law burning was reserved, either for the living who had been found guilty of unnatural sins (Leviticus 20:4; 21:9), or for those who died under a curse, as in the case of Achan and his family, who after they had been stoned to death were, with all their belongings, burned with fire (Joshua 7:25).ISBE Burial.37
(2) Embalming: As the burning practiced by the Greeks found no place in Jewish law and custom, so embalming, as practiced by the Egyptians, was unknown in Israel, the cases of Jacob and Joseph being clearly special, and in conformity to Egyptian custom under justifying circumstances. When Jacob died it was Joseph, the Egyptian official, who "commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father" (Genesis 50:2), and it was conventionally the fit thing that when Joseph himself died his body was embalmed and "put in a coffin (sarcophagus) in Egypt" (Genesis 50:26).ISBE Burial.38
III. On the Way to the Grave: When the preparations were made and the time came, the corpse was carried to the grave on a bier, or litter (miTTah).ISBE Burial.39
1. Coffins Unknown: Coffins were unknown in ancient Israel, as they are among the Jews of the East to this day. The only one mentioned in the Bible is the sarcophagus in which the embalmed body of Joseph was preserved, unless Asa's bed (2 Chronicles 16:14) be another, as some think. Moslems, like eastern Jews, never use coffins. The bier sometimes has a pole at each corner by means of which it is carried on the shoulders to the tomb.ISBE Burial.40
2. Professional Mourners: The procession of mourners is made up largely, of course, of relatives and friends of the deceased, but is led by professional mourning women, who make the air resound with their shrieks and lamentations (compare Ecclesiastes 12:5; Jeremiah 9:17; Amos 5:16). See MOURNING. Amos 5:16 alludes to this custom in describing the mourning that shall be over the desolations of Israel: "Wailing shall be in all the broad ways; and they shall say in all the streets, Alas! alas! and they shall call the husbandman to mourning, and such as are skillful in lamentation to wailing." Jer (Amos 9:15, 15) breaks out: "Call for the mourning women, that they may come; .... and let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run down with tears, and our eyelids gush out with waters." Dr. Fred. Bliss tells of a mourning delegation at the mahal, or mourning house, of a great man. "No matter how gaily they may be chatting they approach, when they reach the house they rush forward, handkerchiefs to face, sobbing, weeping, with utmost demonstrations of grief, going through them time after time as occasion requires." Amelia B. Edwards gives a vivid account of her first experience with such mourning: "It rose like the far-off wavering sound of many owls. It shrilled, swelled, wavered, dropped, and then died away, like the moaning of the wind at sea. We never heard anything so wild and plaintive." Among some Jews of today, it is said, the funeral procession moves swiftly, because there are supposed to be innumerable evil spirits (shedhim) hovering about, desirous to attack the soul, which is thought to be in the body until interment takes place and the corpse is actually covered (see DB , article "Burial").ISBE Burial.42
IV. At the Grave. When the grave, or place of entombment, is reached ceremonies more or less characteristic and peculiar to the Orient take place.ISBE Burial.43
1. Graves Dug in the Earth: When the body is let down into the ground, the bier, of course, is set aside, and at first a heap of stones only is piled over the shallow grave--to preserve the dead from the dreaded depredations of hyenas, jackals or thieves. Beyond question graves among ancient Jews were often simply dug in the earth, as they are with us, and as they are with Jews at Jerusalem and elsewhere in the East today.ISBE Burial.44
2. Family Tombs. Later Customs: But originally, it would seem to have been customary for each family to have a family tomb: either a natural cave, prepared with stone shelves to receive the bodies, or else hewn out of rock in the hillside, each tomb, or sepulcher, having many niches or loculi, in each one of which a body could be placed (see Genesis 25:10; 49:31; 50:13; 35:19; Joshua 24:32). As Dr. Nicol says, "All among the Israelites who possessed any land, or who could afford it, had their family tombs, hewn out of the rock, each sepulchre containing many niches. Many generations of a family could thus be placed in the ancestral tomb." Countless numbers of such tombs are to be found all over Palestine, but Machpelah, of course, is the chief example (Genesis 23:1-20). Compare the cases of Joshua buried in his inheritance at Timnath-serah (Joshua 24:30), Samuel in his house at Ramah (1 Samuel 25:1), Joab in his house in the wilderness (1 Kings 2:34), Manasseh in the garden of his house (2 Kings 21:18), Josiah in the same tomb, it would seem, as his fath er and grandfather (2 Kings 23:30), and Asa, singled out for special mention (2 Chronicles 16:14). According to custom, too, the Jew was not to sell his burying-place, if it was possible for him to hold it. Today in the Orient itISBE Burial.45
is quite different--burying-places of Moslem, Jewish and Christian peoples, while distinct from each other, are community rather than family burying-places.ISBE Burial.46
3. Sealed Stones: When the tomb was a cave, or was dug out from some rock, the entrance was often closed with a large circular stone set up on its edge or rim and rolled in its groove to the front of the mouth of the tomb, so as to close it securely. This stone was then often further secured by a strap, or by sealing. In such case it could easily be seen or known if the tomb had been disturbed. Pilate, it will be recalled, directed that the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, in which the body of Jesus was laid, should be carefully sealed and made as secure as the officials could make it. "So they went, and made the sepulchre sure, sealing the stone, the guard being with them" (Matthew 27:66).ISBE Burial.47
4. Stated Times of Mourning: In Syria, as elsewhere in the East, it is customary to have stated times after the burial for mourning at the tomb--for example on the third, seventh, and fortieth days, and again on the anniversary of the burial. The relatives or friends then go to the tomb without ornaments, often with hair disheveled; sometimes with head covered and faces blackened with soot, or ashes, or earth, in their oldest and poorest clothing, which is sometimes violently rent, and, sitting or moving in a circle around or near to the tomb, they break out in spells into weird, dirge-like singing or wailing.ISBE Burial.48
5. Excessive Mourning: The violence of grief at times leads to lacerations of the body and the shedding of blood. Morier (Second Journey through Persia), describing a celebration which takes place annually to commemorate the death of the grandson of Mohammed, says: "I have seen the most violent of them, as they vociferated Ya Hosein! walk the streets with their bodies streaming with blood by the voluntary cuts they had given themselves". Such cutting of the flesh in mourning for the dead was specifically forbidden by the Mosaic law (Leviticus 19:28; 21:5; Deuteronomy 14:1). But excessive mourning for the dead is often alluded to in Scripture (see 2 Samuel 1:11-12; Psalms 6:6; 119:136; Lamentations 1:16; 3:48; Jeremiah 9:1).ISBE Burial.49
6. Dirge-Songs: The custom of dirge-songs seems to be alluded to (Matthew 9:23; Mark 5:38) in the narrative of the healing of the ruler's daughter: "Jesus came into the ruler's house, and saw the flute-players, and the crowd making a tumult." A characteristic oriental funeral procession and burial are vividly pictured in the narrative of the burial of Jacob (Genesis 50:6-13).ISBE Burial.50
V. Failure to Receive Burial Counted a Calamity or a Judgment.ISBE Burial.51
Any lack of proper burial is still regarded in the East, as it was in ancient times, as a great indignity or a judgment from God. It is esteemed the greatest calamity that can befall a person. It gives men still untold distress to think they shall not receive suitable burial, according to the customs of their respective race, or family, or religion--a fact or sentiment that is often alluded or appealed to by way of illustration in the Scriptures. For a corpse to remain unburied and become food for beasts of prey was the climax of indignity or judgment (2 Samuel 21:10-11; 1 Kings 13:22; 14:11; 16:4; 21:24; 2 Kings 9:37; Jeremiah 7:33; 8:1; Ezekiel 29:5; Psalms 79:3; Revelation 11:9), and uncovered blood cried for vengeance (Ezekiel 24:6 f; 39:11-16), the idea being the same as among other oriental peoples, that the unburied dead would not only inflict trouble upon his family, but bring defilement also and a curse upon the whole land. It was, therefore, an obligation resting upon all to bury even the dead found by the way (Tobit 1:18; 2:8). Even malefactors were to be allowed burial (Deuteronomy 21:22-23), and the exceptional denial of it to the sons of Rizpah gave occasion for the touching story of her self-denying care of the dead found in 2 Samuel 21:10-11.ISBE Burial.52
VI. Places of Burial: How Marked. Ordinary graves were marked by the heaping of crude stones, but hewn stones and sometimes costly pillars were set up as memorials of the dead (Ezekiel 39:15; 2 Kings 23:17 the Revised Version (British and American), "What monument is that which I see?" the reference being to a sepulchral pillar). Jacob set up a pillar over Rachel's grave (Genesis 35:20), and her tomb is marked by a monument to this day. Absalom's grave in the wood of Ephraim had a heap of stones raised over it (2 Samuel 18:17), but in this case, as in the case of Achan, it was not for honor but for dishonor. In New Testament times the place of burial was uniformly outside the cities and villages (see Luke 7:12; John 11:30). There was public provision made for the burial of strangers (Matthew 27:7), as in the closing days of the monarchy there was a public burying-ground at Jerusalem (Jeremiah 26:23), probably where it is to this day between the city wall and the Kidron Valley. Thousands of Jewish graves on the sloping sides of the Valley of Jehoshaphat, where the Jews have come from all lands to be buried, bear witness today to the belief that associates the coming of Messiah with a blessed resurrection. Many Jews hold that Messiah, when He comes, will descend upon the Mount of Olives, and will pass through these resting-places of the dead as He enters the Holy City in glory.ISBE Burial.53
HDB, article "Burial"; Keil, Biblical Arch., II, 199 f; Nowack, Heb Arch., I, 187 ff; "Burial" and "Tombs" in Kitto, Cycl.; Thomson, LB (see "Funerals" in Index); Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands; Mackie, Bible Manners and Customs.ISBE Burial.55
Burier - ber'-i-er (kabhar): "Set up a sign by it, till the buriers have buried it" (Ezekiel 39:15). "When the searchers found any human remains as they passed through the land, they were to set up a mark to attract the attention of the buriers, who followed them" (Dummelow's Commentary, in the place cited.).ISBE Burier.2
Burn; Burning - burn, burn'-ing: Figurative: In addition to the ordinary meaning, burn is used metaphorically in the following passages of the New Testament:ISBE Burn; Burning.2
(1) kaio (Luke 24:32), "Was not our heart burning within us," i.e. greatly moved.ISBE Burn; Burning.3
(2) puroo, used twice, once in the sense of inflamed with sexual desire (1 Corinthians 7:9), "For it is better to marry than to burn" and in 2 Corinthians 11:29 of the heat of the passions, here of grief, or anger, "Who is offended (the American Standard Revised Version "caused to stumble") and I burn not?"ISBE Burn; Burning.4
See also PUNISHMENTS.ISBE Burn; Burning.5
Burnt Offering - See SACRIFICE.ISBE Burnt Offering.2
Burnt Sacrifice - See SACRIFICE.ISBE Burnt Sacrifice.2
(1) (ceneh, Exodus 3:2-4; Deuteronomy 33:16; batos, Mark 12:26; Luke 6:44, "bramble bush"; Luke 20:37; Acts 7:30, 35. All the Old Testament references and the New Testament references, except Luke 6:44, are to the same "bush," namely, Moses' "burning bush"). From its etymology ceneh clearly denotes a "thorny" plant, as does the corresponding batos in the Septuagint and New Testament. In the Latin versions rubus, i.e. "bramble," is used as equivalent. Several varieties of bramble flourish in Palestine, of which the most common is Rubus discolor, but this is not an indigenous plant in Sinai. It is stated by Post that a bush of this plant has been planted by the monks of the Convent of Catherine at Sinai to the rear of the "Chapel of the Burning Bush." In spite of tradition there is but little doubt that Moses' "burning bush" must actually have been a shrub of one of the various thorny acacias, or allied plants, indigenous in the Sinaitic peninsula.ISBE Bush.3
(2) (siach "plant," Genesis 2:5; "shrub," Genesis 21:15; "bush," Job 30:4, 7). In the first reference any kind of plant may be meant, but in the other passages the reference is to the low bushes or scrub, such as are found in the desert.ISBE Bush.4
(3) (nahalolim, the King James Version bushes, the Revised Version (British and American) PASTURE, margin "bushes," Isaiah 7:19). The meaning appears to be rather a place for watering flocks, the corresponding Arabic root nahal, having the meaning "to quench one's thirst," and the corresponding noun of place, manhal, meaning a watering-place in the desert.ISBE Bush.5
Bush, Burning - burn'-ing.ISBE Bush, Burning.2
1. Meaning and Use: The scene at the burning bush (ceneh, "a bush," Septuagint batos, "blackberry bush") reveals God to the world in one of theophanies with fire, of which there are four mentioned in the Bible (Exodus 3:2; 13:21; 19:18; also 2 Thessalonians 1:8 the King James Version, yet to be fulfilled). Many other Divine manifestations were associated with fire. The Burning Bush is mentioned elsewhere in Deuteronomy 33:16; Mark 12:26; Luke 20:37; Acts 7:30-31.ISBE Bush, Burning.3
2. Identification: Exact identification of the particular kind of bush in which God appeared to Moses is impossible. Attempts have been made to identify it with the blackberry bush, as by the Septuagint and also by the monks of the Convent of Catharine on Mount Sinai who grow the blackberry there in token of their tradition. The cassia has also been suggested. Both identifications are failures, the former because the blackberry does not grow in that region unless imported and tended, the latter for philological reasons. Nothing in the language used gives any clue to the species of the bush. The generally accepted view that it was some kind of thorn bush is an assumption with scarcely other ground than that there are so many thorny bushes in that region. This fact does, however, give to the assumption much probability.ISBE Bush, Burning.4
3. Interpretation: The old Jewish commentators have many things to say in explanation of this theophany (compare Jewish Encyclopedia). That one thing which will meet with much response from the Christian heart is that the unconsumed bush with the fire in the midst of it indicated that the Israelites would not be consumed by the afflictions in Egypt. The application of this view to God's people under affliction in all ages is often made by Christian homilists. But this cannot have been the primary meaning of theophany. Of the many theophanies and other Divine manifestations with fire, the specific signification must be learned from a careful study of the circumstances in each case. The fire does not seem to have any one fundamental meaning running through them all. In addition to the references already given, compare Psalms 18:8-12; 50:3; Ezekiel 1:4; Micah 1:1-4; Habakkuk 3:3-6; Hebrews 12:29.ISBE Bush, Burning.5
The exact meaning of the Burning Bush as a method or medium of revelation may appear as follows: (1) The flame in this bush was not the flame of persecution by God's enemies without, but the flame of God's presence or the presence of His angel within. (2) The idea of burning and yet not being consumed is brought into the narrative by Moses' wonderment in the moment of his ignorance, before he knew that God was in the bush. (3) The real significance of the flame in this case seems to be light and glory and preservation where God manifests Himself graciously. This is the universal idea of revealed religion. The prevailing idea of God in the religions round about was that God dwelt in darkness. The approach to the gods in Egyptian temples was through ever-deepening gloom. It was thought that God was very dangerous and apt to be a destroyer, so that a priest must always intervene. God as a gracious Saviour was the new idea revelation was bringing to the world. This was now first clearly announced, but was not to be fully revealed throughout the time of the long line of priests until the Great High Priest should come and make a "way of approach" that we may come "with boldness unto the throne of grace."ISBE Bush, Burning.6
M. G. KyleISBE Bush, Burning.7
Bushel - boosh'-el (modios): A dry measure containing about a peck, but as it is used in the New Testament (Matthew 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33) it does not refer to capacity but is used only to indicate a covering to conceal the light.ISBE Bushel.2
Bushy - boosh'-i: Found in Song of Solomon 5:11 as the translation of taltal, meaning trailing, pendulous (Septuagint elatai, literally "ductile"); the Revised Version, margin reads "curly."ISBE Bushy.2
Business - biz'-nes: Is the rendering of four Hebrew words: (1) mela'khah, in Genesis 39:11 (the American Standard Revised Version "work"); 1 Chronicles 26:29-30; 2 Chronicles 13:10 (the American Standard Revised Version "in their work"); 2 Chronicles 17:13 (the American Standard Revised Version "many works"); Nehemiah 11:16, 22; 13:30 (the American Standard Revised Version "in his work"); Esther 3:9; Psalms 107:23; Proverbs 22:29; Daniel 8:27. (2) dabhar, literally "a word," is so translated in Deuteronomy 24:5; Joshua 2:14, 20; Judges 18:7 (the American Standard Revised Version "dealings"); Judges 18:28 (the American Standard Revised Version "dealings"); 1 Samuel 21:2, 8. (3) ma`aseh, "an action" (1 Samuel 20:19). (4) `inyan, "employment" (Ecclesiastes 5:3; 8:16).ISBE Business.2
In the New Testament "business" in Luke 2:49 is the rendering of the phrase en, tois, tou patros mou, literally "in the things of my Father," which the American Standard Revised Version renders "in my Father's house," with "about my Father's business" as the marginal reading. "Business" is also used in the translation of chreia, literally "need," of Acts 6:3; as the translation of spoude, literally "haste" of Romans 12:11 (the American Standard Revised Version "diligence"); of pragma, literally "thing done," of Romans 16:2 (the American Standard Revised Version "matter"); of prassein ta idia, literally "tend to one's own business," of 1 Thessalonians 4:11. In Acts 19:24-25 in Paul's account of the riot in Ephesus, ergasia, literally "working," "performing," is translated "little business" in Acts 19:24 (the King James Version "small gain"), and "by this business" in Acts 19:25 (the King James Version "by this craft").ISBE Business.3
Arthur J. KinsellaISBE Business.4
Busybody - biz'-i-bod-i (periergos, allotrioepiskopos): The word is found twice in Paulinic literature.: 1 Timothy 5:13, "not only idle, but tattlers also and busybodies," and 2 Thessalonians 3:11, "work not at all, but are busybodies." It is also found in 1 Peter 4:15 the King James Version (the Revised Version (British and American) "meddler") "or as a busybody in other men's matters." If these passages be coupled with such others as James 3:2-10; 4:11; Ephesians 4:29, 31; Titus 3:2, it becomes evident that sins against the eighth commandment were as common in the apostolic church as they are today. To this day backbiting is a common trait of oriental peoples. And it is this sin which is so repeatedly warned against by the apostles, as in direct conflict with the ethics of Christianity, and in violation of that spirit of brotherly love and mutual trust which Christ has enjoined on His followers, and which is the very marrow of the outward revelation of the Christian faith (1 Corinthians 13:1-13).ISBE Busybody.2
Henry E. DoskerISBE Busybody.3
Butler - but'-ler: An officer in households of kings, or other dignitaries, having charge of wines and other potables. mashqeh, "one who gives drink" (Genesis 40:1-23; 41:9), rendered "cupbearer" in 1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chronicles 9:4; Nehemiah 1:11. The office was one of consider ble importance in oriental courts, because of the danger to the king's life through plots of poison, etc. Nehemiah held this position to King Artaxerxes. Wealthy courts, as that of Solomon, usually had more than one (1 Kings 10:5); over these cupbearers or butlers was the sar ha-mash-qim, or chief butler (Genesis 40:9).ISBE Butler.2
Edward Bagby PollardISBE Butler.3
Butter - See FOOD.ISBE Butter.2
Buying - bi'-ing (karah, laqach, qena', qanah, shabhar; agorazo, oneomai, emporeuomai):ISBE Buying.2
I. IN THE EARLIEST PERIODS AND AMONG NOMADSISBE Buying.3
1. The Primitive Stage (the "Shop")ISBE Buying.4
2. In Old Testament TimesISBE Buying.5
3. In New Testament TimesISBE Buying.6
II. ORIENTAL BUYING A TEDIOUS PROCESSISBE Buying.7
III. SHOPS AND BAZAARSISBE Buying.8
1. Oriental ShopsISBE Buying.9
2. The Market-PlaceISBE Buying.10
IV. BUYING ON CREDIT PAYING CASH (MONEY)ISBE Buying.11
V. OPEN-AIR MARKETS AND FAIRSISBE Buying.12
I. In the Earliest Periods and among Nomads. 1. The Primitive Stage; (the "Shop"): Among primitive races and nomads there can be, of course, no organized commerce. Yet they buy and sell, by barter and exchange, in rude and simple ways. When tribes become settled and live in villages the "shop" is established--usually at first the simple "stall" of the grocer (bakkal) where one can buy bread; cheese, salt and dried fish, olives, oil, bundles of wood or charcoal, and even earthenware vessels for the passing traveler. At a later stage the village will have also, according to demand, other shops, as, for instance, those of the baker, the blacksmith, the cobbler, and, today, will be found in many obscure places in the East the butcher's shop, and the coffee house.ISBE Buying.13
2. In Old Testament Times: These gradations and the gradual rise to the more organized commerce of the Greek-Roman period are indicated in a way by the succession of words for "buying" used in the Bible and the conditions and circumstances pictured and implied in the various accounts of buying and selling. Even as early as Abraham's time, however, there were buying and weighing of silver in exchange. "Hear me," pleads Abraham with the children of Heth, "and entreat for me to Ephron the son of Zohar, that he may give me the cave of Machpelah .... which is in the end of his field; for the full price let him give it to me." And Ephron said, "Nay, my lord, hear me: the field give I thee, and the cave that is therein." But Abraham said, "If thou wilt .... I will give the price of the field; take it of me, and I will bury my dead there. And Ephron answered .... My lord, hearken unto me: a piece of land worth four hundred shekels of silver, what is that betwixt me and thee? bury therefore thy dead ..... And Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver .... four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant. So .... the field, and the cave, and all the trees that were in the field, .... were made sure unto Abraham for a possession" (Genesis 23:8-18). Other examples of primitive buying are found in Joshua 24:32 ("the parcel of ground which Jacob bought of the sons of Hamor the father of Shechem for a hundred pieces of money"); in Ruth 4:5-9, where Boaz is represented as buying "the parcel of land which was Elimelech's .... of the hand of Naomi .... and of Ruth the Moabitess, the wife of the dead .... all that was Elimelech's"; and in 2 Samuel 24:21-24, where David is said to have "bought the threshing-floor" of Araunah at "a price." Such cases, however, are in a sense exceptional; trade in general at that time was by barter and exchange, without intermediary or market-place.ISBE Buying.14
3. In New Testament Times: In New Testament times things have so changed that the word most commonly used for buying (agorazo) means "to use the market-place," and another (emporeuomai) points to a class of traders or merchants who go on, from city to city--"continue" here or there "and buy and sell" (James 4:13 the King James Version).ISBE Buying.15
II. Oriental Buying a Tedious Process. Something of this is seen even in the fine examples given above. Doubtless, however, eastern buyers and sellers of old haggled over prices with controversy and heat, even as such buyers do today. Every where you find them now keen for bargains, but "striking a bargain" is a tedious process. They grow warm and then cool off; they are swept into a frenzy by some new turn of the strife and then calm down; but soon the haggling and arguing begin over again, becoming more heated and seemingly more hopeless than ever, and often they become so excited as to threaten to come to blows. But they don't mean it all, and at last they find a common basis; the sale is made with flattering compliments to one another, and, if we may believe appearances, to the rapturous delight of both parties to the bargain.ISBE Buying.16
The native Oriental clearly takes pleasure in such exercise, and sees great possibilities before him. He graciously assures you at the outset that the bargain shall be "just as you like it--just as you like it!" Is he not a servant of God? What cares he for money? What he most wants is your happiness and good will--that is the sweetest thing in life--the love and favor of brothers. After a while you offer a price. He says, "What is such a trifle between us? Take it for nothing!" But he is far from meaning it, and so the haggling begins and the fire and heat of controversy follow--perhaps for hours.ISBE Buying.17
III. Shops and Bazaars. 1. Oriental Shops: Oriental shops are all of a pattern--the workshop and the place to store and sell goods is one and the same. It is on the street, of course, and a platform, usually about 2 ft. high, extends along the whole front. A small door opens to a room back, which, as far as such a thing is possible in the Orient, is private. The goods, particularly the best articles, are displayed in front, somewhat as they are in the windows of our department stores. In the center of the platform is a sejadeh, a rug or mat. Upon this the keeper sits in true oriental fashion--cross-legged. He is never too busy with his accounts to let the passerby escape his keen eye. He will give up his nargileh any time to hail the stranger, display his goods, and coaxingly invite him to look at the special beauty and quality of his articles.ISBE Buying.18
2. The Market-Place: All the shops or storerooms of the oriental village line the "market," which as a rule, is in the center of the village, or on the chief street. This the Arabs call suk, sookh (compare Matthew 20:3). Here the peasant is found with his donkeys or camels laden with food-stuffs and country produce. The gardener is there with his small fruits, and the fisherman with his latest "catch." All the shopkeepers, too, are on or near to this street or market center. "The sookh in a country village," says J. Carrow Duncan, "is one of the most interesting sights of modern Egypt. Formerly the cattle and dry-goods markets were uniformly held in an open space in the center of each village. Now the government compels them to go to a fenced enclosure outside of the town. At Belbeys the ordinary market is still held in the center of the town, but the cattle market is a mile away, across the canal. As in a bazaar, such as the traveler sees in Cairo, the merchants of the various trades dispose themselves here in lanes, all easily accessible from the main street, which is thus left clear. On the left are the dealers in copper utensils, busily plying their trade; next to them the makers of sieves and riddles; then comes a large space filled with pottery ware, and, close by, the vegetable yentiers. There, jammed in between the pottery space and the coppersmiths, is a lane of gold- and silversmiths--the greatest sharks in the market, their chief prey being the women. On the other side of the main street are the shoemakers' lane, the drapers' lane, the grocers, the seed men, the sweetmeat-sellers, fruit-merchants, dealers in glass and carnelian jewelry and, lastly, the butchers' stalls, all arranged in lanes, and all equally ready to trade or to enjoy a joke at each other's expense. There is apparently little eagerness to trade--except when a tourist appears." To one who is ignorant of the value of his wares, the oriental dealer has no fixed price. This is really regulated by the supposed ignorance of the purchaser. If you choose, you may give him what he asks, and be laughed at all round the sookh. If you are wise, you will offer something near to the real value and firmly refuse to vary or haggle, and he will come to terms.ISBE Buying.19
Professor Elihu Grant tells of a shop in a Syrian village--"a small room, 6 to 12 ft. square, with a door, but no window, a counter or bench, and shelves and bins along the sides, where sugar, flour, oil, matches, candies, spice, starch, coffee, rice, dried figs, etc., were found, but no wrapping-paper. The buyer must bring his own dish for liquids; other things he carries away in the ample folds of his skirt or in a handkerchief." "Every considerable Turkish town," says Van Lennep, "has a bazaar, bezesten, or `arcade': a stone structure, open at both ends, a narrow alley or street running through it, covered with an arched roof, the sides pierced with openings or windows. This covered street is lined on both sides with shops, narrow and shallow. Dealers in similar goods and articles flock together here, as do the artisans of like trades in all oriental cities." Such shops can yet be seen in quite characteristic form in Damascus, Bagdad, Cairo and Constantinople, as in ancient days they were found in Babylon, Jerusalem and Noph (see Ezekiel 27:13-24).ISBE Buying.20
IV. Buying on Credit. The shop-keeper does not always get cash from the native buyer. Dr. Post found that debt was well-nigh universal in Syria. The peasant sows "borrowed" seed, in "borrowed" soil, plants and reaps with "borrowed" tools, and lives in a "borrowed" house. Even in case of an abundant harvest the proportion of the crop left by the landlord and the tax-gatherer leaves the man and his family but the barest living at best; at times he can barely pay the debt accumulated in making and gathering in the crop, and sometimes fails in doing this.ISBE Buying.21
Paying Cash (Money):ISBE Buying.22
In the rare cases when the buyer pays cash for his purchases, he makes payment, after a true oriental fashion, in coin of the most various or varying values, or in rings of copper, silver or gold, such as are now common in the market-places of China. This throws light upon some Scriptural passages, as, for example, Genesis 43:21-22, where the language implies that the "rings" or "strings of money' were weighed: "Behold, every man's money was in the mouth of his sack, our money in fill weight .... and other money have we brought down in our hand to buy food." In Ezra 2:69, three kinds of currency are mentioned, "darics of gold," "pounds of silver," and "priests' garments," as having been given into the treasury for the house of God. The term rendered "darics of gold," 'adharkonim, stands for Persian coins, which were similar to the Greek "darics." The Persians are said to have got the idea of coining from Lydia, at the capture of Sardis, 564 BC. Early Lydian coins were of electrum, but Croesus changed this to coins of gold and silver, probably about 568 BC. Examples of these ancient coins are now known (Rice, Orientalisms in Bible Lands, 234).ISBE Buying.23
V. Open-Air Markets and Fairs. In inland towns and cities, markets and market-places are often found in the open air, as well as under cover. Great fairs are held thus on certain days of the week. Several towns will agree upon different days as market days and will offer in turn whatever they have for sale: lambs, sheep, cattle, horses, mules, chickens, eggs, butter, cheese, vegetables, fruits, and even jewelry and garments. In such a case it is as if the whole town for the day was turned into a market or exhibition, where everything is for sale. On such days peasants and townspeople come together in much larger numbers than is ordinary, and mingle freely together. The day thus chosen now, as in olden times, is often a holy day--Friday, which is the Moslem Sabbath, or the Christian Sunday, where Christians abound. Such instances form a side-light on such passages as Nehemiah 13:15-22: "In those days saw I in Judah some men treading winepresses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses therewith; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day: and I testified against them." Morier testifies that he attended similar fairs in Persia, where were gathered sellers of all sorts of goods in temporary shops or tents, such as sellers of barley and flour, as it was at the gate of Samaria after the famine (2 Kings 7:1-20). Layard also speaks of having seen at the gate of the modern town of Mosul, opposite the site of ancient Nineveh shops for the sale of wheat, barley, bread-stuffs, and drinks for the thirsty. It will be recalled that it was "at the gate" that Boaz (Ruth 4:1-3) called the elders and people to witness that he had bought all that was Elimelech's. For similar allusions see Job 5:4; Proverbs 31:23; Psalms 127:5; Lamentations 5:14.ISBE Buying.24
See MONEY; TRADE, etc.; also DB, DCG, etc.ISBE Buying.25
Buz; Buzi; Buzite - buz, bu'-zi, buz'-it ( buz):ISBE Buz; Buzi; Buzite.2
(1) Second son of Nahor (Genesis 22:21). The word occurs again in Jeremiah 25:23, by the side of Dedan (Genesis 10:7) and Tema (Genesis 25:15), and is probably, therefore, the name of a people living in the neighborhood of Edom. Buz and Hazo (Genesis 22:22) are probably the countries of Bazu and Chazu (the former described as full of snakes and scorpions), which Esarhaddon invaded (KB, II, 131).ISBE Buz; Buzi; Buzite.3
(2) A Gadite (1 Chronicles 5:14) (buzi), "an inhabitant of Buz"), a title given to Elihu, the fourth speaker in the Book of Job (Job 32:2).ISBE Buz; Buzi; Buzite.4
Horace J. WolfISBE Buz; Buzi; Buzite.5
By - In the sense of "against" which survives only in dialectal English (compare Wright, Dialect Dict., I, 470, for examples) is the King James Version rendering of the dative emauto of 1 Corinthians 4:4 (the American Standard Revised Version renders this "against"). In classical Greek the same idiom sunoida with dative = "be conscious" or "be cognizant of'' a thing.ISBE By.2
By and by - In the sense of "immediately" is the King James Version translation of exautes, of Mark 6:25 (the American Standard Revised Version "forthwith"); of euthus, Matthew 13:21 (the American Standard Revised Version "straightway"); of eutheos, Luke 17:7 (the American Standard Revised Version "straightway"); Luke 21:9 (the American Standard Revised Version "immediately"). In English literally this meaning is obsolete (compare: "After you have dyned and supte, laboure not by and by after, but make a pause--the space of an howre or more with some pastyme" (Babees Book, EETS, 247).ISBE By and by.2
Byblus - bib'-lus.ISBE Byblus.2
Bypaths - bi'-pathz.ISBE Bypaths.2
Byssus - bis'-us.ISBE Byssus.2
Byway - bi'-wa (nethibhoth): Only in Judges 5:6. Compare Jeremiah 18:15; the King James Version "paths" (the Revised Version (British and American) "by-paths").ISBE Byway.2
Byword - bi'-wurd: shammah = "consternation," "astonishment," "waste," "wonderful language," "object of remark" (Deuteronomy 28:37; 1 Kings 9:7; 2 Chronicles 7:20); mashal, or meshol = "a satire,'' "byword" (Job 17:6; Psalms 44:14); millah, or milleh = "a topic," "object of talk," "byword" (Job 30:9).ISBE Byword.2