Code of Hammurabi — Constrain

Code of Hammurabi

Code of Hammurabi - See HAMMURABI, CODE OF.ISBE Code of Hammurabi.2

Coele-syria

Coele-syria - se-le-sir'-i-a (the King James Version Celosyria; Koile Suria, "hollow Syria"): So the Greeks after the time of Alexander the Great named the valley lying between the two mountain ranges, Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It is referred to in the Old Testament as Biq`ath ha-Lebhanon, "the valley of Lebanon" (Joshua 11:17), a name the echo of which is still heard in el-Buqa`, the designation applied today to the southern part of the valley. This hollow, which extends about 100 miles in length, is the continuation northward of the Jordan valley. The main physical features are described under LEBANON (which see). The name, however, did not always indicate the same tract of territory. In Strabo (xvi.2) and Ptolemy (v.15), it covers the fertile land between Jebel esh-Sharqy and the desert presided over by Damascus. In 1 Esdras 2:17; 2 Maccabees 3:8, etc., it indicates the country South and East of Mt. Lebanon, and along with Phoenicia it contributed the whole of the Seleucid dominions which lay South of the river Eleutherus. Josephus includes in Coele-Syria the country East of the Jordan, along with Scythopolis (Beisan) which lay on the West, separated by the river from the other members of the Decapolis (Ant., XIII, xiii, 2, etc.). In XIV, iv, 5, he says that "Pompey committed Coele-Syria as far as the river Euphrates and Egypt to Scaurus." The term is therefore one of some elasticity.ISBE Coele-syria.2

W. EwingISBE Coele-syria.3

Coffer

Coffer - kof'-er ('argaz): A small box such as that in which the Philistines placed their golden mice and other offerings in returning the Ark (1 Samuel 6:8, 11, 15).ISBE Coffer.2

Coffin

Coffin - kof'-in.ISBE Coffin.2

See CHEST; BURIAL.ISBE Coffin.3

Cogitation

Cogitation - koj-i-ta'-shun, ra`yon, "the act of thinking or reflecting," as in Daniel 7:28, "my cogitations much troubled me" (the Revised Version (British and American) "my thoughts").ISBE Cogitation.2

Cohort

Cohort - ko'-hort: In the Revised Version, margin of Matthew 27:27; Mark 15:16; John 18:3, 12; Acts 10:1; 21:31; 27:1, the translation of speira (the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American), "band"); the tenth part of a legion; ordinarily about 600 men. In John 18:1-40 the word seems to be used loosely of a smaller body of soldiers, a detachment, detail.ISBE Cohort.2

See ARMY; BAND.ISBE Cohort.3

Coins

Coins - koinz: There were no coins in use in Palestine until after the Captivity. It is not quite certain whether gold and silver were before that time divided into pieces of a certain weight for use as money or not, but there can be no question of coinage proper until the Persian period. Darius I is credited with introducing a coinage system into his empire, and his were the first coins that came into use among the Jews, though it seems probable that coins were struck in Lydia in the time of Croesus, the contemporary of Cyrus the Great, and these coins were doubtless the model upon which Darius based his system, and they may have circulated to some extent in Babylonia before the return of the Jews. The only coins mentioned in the Old Testament are the Darics (see DARIC), and these only in the Revised Version (British and American), the word "dram" being used in the King James Version (Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Nehemiah 7:70-72). The Jews had no native coins until the time of the Maccabees, who struck coins after gaining their independence about 143-141 BC. These kings struck silver and copper, or the latter, at least (see MONEY), in denominations of shekels and fractions of the shekel, until the dynasty was overthrown by the Romans. Other coins were certainly in circulation during the same period, especially those of Alexander and his successors the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, both of whom bore sway over Palestine before the rise of the Maccabees. Besides these coins there were the issues of some of the Phoenician towns, which were allowed to strike coins by the Persians and the Seleucids. The coins of Tyre and Sidon, both silver and copper, must have circulated largely in Palestine on account of the intimate commercial relations between the Jews and Phoenicians (for examples, see under MONEY). After the advent of the Romans the local coinage was restricted chiefly to the series of copper coins, such as the mites mentioned in the New Testament, the silver denarii being struck mostly at Rome, but circulating wherever the Romans went. The coins of the Herods and the Procurators are abundant, but all of copper, since the Romans did not allow the Jewish rulers to strike either silver or gold coins. At the time of the first revolt (66-70 AD) the Jewish leader, Simon, struck shekels again, or, as some numismatists think, he was the first to do so. But this series was a brief one, lasting between 3 and 4 years only, as Jerusalem was taken by Titus in 70 AD, and this put an end to the existence of the Jewish state. There was another short period of Jewish coinage during the second revolt, in the reign of Hadrian, when Simon Barcochba struck coins with Hebrew legends which indicate his independence of Roman rule. They were of both silver and copper, and constitute the last series of strictly Jewish coins (see MONEY). After this the coins struck in Judea were Roman, as Jerusalem was made a Roman colony.ISBE Coins.2

H. PorterISBE Coins.3

Cola

Cola - ko'-la.ISBE Cola.2

See CHOLA.ISBE Cola.3

Cold

Cold - kold (qor; psuchros (adj.), psuchos (noun)): Palestine is essentially a land of sunshine and warmth.ISBE Cold.2

1. Temperature in Palestine: The extreme cold of northern latitudes is unknown. January is the coldest month; but the degree of cold in a particular place depends largely on the altitude above the sea. On the seacoast and plain the snow never falls; and the temperature reaches freezing-point, perhaps once in thirty years. In Jerusalem at 2,500 ft. above the sea the mean temperature in January is about 45 degrees F., but the minimum may be as low as 25 degrees F. Snow occasionally falls, but lasts only a short time. On Mt. Hermon and on the Lebanons snow may be found the whole year, and the cold is most intense, even in the summer. In Jericho and around the Dead Sea, 1,292 ft. below sea-level, it is correspondingly hotter, and cold is not known.ISBE Cold.3

2. Provision against Cold: Cold is of such short duration that no adequate provision is made by the people to protect themselves against the cold. The sun is always bright and warm, and nearly always shines for part of the day, even in winter. After sunset the people wrap themselves up and go to sleep. They prefer to wrap up their heads rather than their feet in order to keep warm. The only means of heating the houses is the charcoal brazier around which as many as possible gather for a little warmth. It is merely a bed of coals in an iron vessel. Peter was glad to avail himself of the little heat of the coals as late as the beginning of April, when the nights are often chilly in Jerusalem: "Having made a fire of coals; for it was cold: .... and Peter also was with them, standing and warming himself" (John 18:18). There is no attempt made to heat the whole house. In the cold winter months the people of the mountains almost hibernate. They wrap up their heads in shawls and coverings and only the most energetic venture out: "The sluggard will not plow by reason of the winter" (Proverbs 20:4, the King James Version "cold"). The peasants and more primitive people of the desert often make a fire in the open or in partial shelter, as in Melita where Paul was cast ashore after shipwreck: "The barbarians .... kindled a fire .... because of the cold" (Acts 28:2).ISBE Cold.4

3. Dread of Cold: The cold is greatly dreaded because it causes so much actual suffering: "Who can stand before his cold?" (Psalms 147:17). The last degree of degradation is to have "no covering in the cold" (Job 24:7).ISBE Cold.5

4. Cold Grateful in Summer: In the heat of the long summer, the shadow of a rock or the cool of evening is most grateful, and the appreciation of a cup of cold water can easily be understood by anyone who has experienced the burning heat of the Syrian sun: "As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country" (Proverbs 25:25); "cold of snow in the time of harvest" (Proverbs 25:13), probably with reference to the use of snow (shaved ice) in the East to cool a beverage.ISBE Cold.6

Figurative uses: "The love of the many shall wax cold" (Matthew 24:12); "I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot" (Revelation 3:15).ISBE Cold.7

Alfred H. JoyISBE Cold.8

Col-hozeh

Col-hozeh - kol-ho'-ze (kol-chozeh, "all seeing"; Septuagint omits): A man whose son Shallum rebuilt the fountain gate of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah (Nehemiah 3:15). The Col-hozeh of Nehemiah 11:5 is probably another man.ISBE Col-hozeh.2

Colius

Colius - ko'-li-us (Kolios, 1 Esdras 9:23).ISBE Colius.2

See CALITAS.ISBE Colius.3

Collar

Collar - kol'-ar, kol'-er:ISBE Collar.2

(1) (neTphah, plural neTphoth, literally, "drops," from naTaph, "to drop"). Judges 8:26 includes neTphoth among the spoils taken from the Midianites and Ishmaelites; the Revised Version (British and American) "pendants," the King James Version "collars." Qimchi at the place suggests "perfume-dropper."ISBE Collar.3

(2) (peh, literally, "mouth"). In Job 30:18 the word is used to indicate the collar band, or hole of a robe, through which the head was inserted. Job, in describing his suffering and writhing, mentions the disfiguring of his garment, and suggests that the whole thing feels as narrow or close-fitting as the neckband, or perhaps that in his fever and pains he feels as if the neckband itself is choking him.ISBE Collar.4

(3) (tsinoq, Jeremiah 29:26, "stocks"; the Revised Version (British and American) "shackles," which see; the Revised Version, margin "collar"). An instrument of torture or punishment.ISBE Collar.5

Nathan IsaacsISBE Collar.6

Collection

Collection - ko-lek'-shun:ISBE Collection.2

(1) In the Old Testament (mas'eth, "something taken up"), used in 2 Chronicles 24:6, 9 the King James Version with reference to the tax prescribed in Ex, 2 Chronicles 30:12, 16; the Revised Version (British and American) "tax."ISBE Collection.3

(2) In the New Testament "collection" is the translation given to logia, found only twice (classical, sulloge). It is used with reference to the collection which Paul took up in the Gentilechurches for the poor Christians in Jerusalem, as, for some reason, perhaps more severe persecutions, that church was especially needy (1 Corinthians 16:1-2; verse 2 the King James Version "gatherings"). Other words, such as bounty, contribution, blessing, alms, ministration, are used to indicate this same ministry. Paul seems to have ascribed to it great importance. Therefore, he planned it carefully long in advance; urged systematic, weekly savings for it; had delegates carefully chosen to take it to Jerusalem; and, in spite of dangers, determined himself to accompany them. Evidently he thought it the crowning act of his work in the provinces of Galatia, Asia, Macedonia and Achaia, for as soon as it was finished he purposed to go to Rome and the West (Acts 24:17; Romans 15:25-26; 2 Corinthians 8:1-24; 2 Corinthians 9:1-15).ISBE Collection.4

See also COMMUNION.ISBE Collection.5

G. H. TreverISBE Collection.6

College

College - kol'-ej: This is the rendering of the King James Version for Hebrew Mishneh (mishneh, 2 Kings 22:14 = 2 Chronicles 34:22; compare Zephaniah 1:10). It is found in the Targum of Jonathan on 2 Kings 22:14 and rests on a faulty combination with Mishna, the well-known code of laws of the 2 Kings 2:11-25nd century AD. the Revised Version (British and American) renders "second quarter" (of the city); 2 Chronicles 34:22 the King James Version margin, "the school."ISBE College.2

Collop

Collop - kol'-up (pimah): A slice of meat or "fat," the King James Version in Job 15:27, "maketh collops of fat (thick folds of flesh) on his flanks," said of the "wicked man." the American Standard Revised Version reads "(hath) gathered fat upon his loins."ISBE Collop.2

Colony

Colony - kol'-o-ni (kolonia, Greek transliteration of Latin colonia, from the root, col, "cultivate"): The word occurs but once (Acts 16:12) in reference to Philippi in Macedonia. Roman colonies were of three kinds and of three periods: (1) Those of the early republic, in which the colonists, established in conquered towns to serve the state as guardians of the frontier, were exempt from ordinary military service. They were distinguished as (a) c. civium Romanorum, wherein the colonists retained Roman citizenship, also called c. maritumae, because situated on the coast, and (b) c. Latinae, situated inland among the allies (socii), wherein the colonists possessed the ius Latinum, entitling them to invoke the Roman law of property (commercium), but not that of the family (connubium), and received Roman citizenship only when elected to magistracies. (2) The colonies of the Gracchan period, established in pursuance of the scheme of agrarian reforms, to provide land for the poorer citizens. (3) After the time of Sulla colonies were founded in Italy by the Republic as a device for granting lands to retiring veterans, who of course retained citizenship. This privilege was appropriated by Caesar and the emperors, who employed it to establish military colonies, chiefly in the provinces, with various rights and internal organizations. To this class belonged Philippi. Partly organized after the great battle of 42 BC, fought in the neighboring plain by Brutus and Cassius, the champions of the fated Republic, and Antonius and Octavian, it was fully established as a colony by Octavian (afterward styled Augustus) after the battle of Actium (31 BC), under the name Colonia Aug. Iul. Philippi or Philippensis. It received the ius Italicum, whereby provincial cities acquired the same status as Italian cities, which possessed municipal self-government and exemption from poll and land taxes.ISBE Colony.2

See CITIZENSHIP; PHILIPPI; ROMAN.ISBE Colony.3

William Arthur HeidelISBE Colony.4

Color; Colors

Color; Colors - kul'-er, kul'-erz: The word translated "color" in the King James Version is `ayin, which literally means "eye" or "appearance," and has been so translated in the Revised Version (British and American). In the New Testament the Greek prophasis, has the meaning of pretense or show (Acts 27:30; compare Revelation 17:4 the King James Version). The references to Joseph's coat of many colors (Genesis 37:3, 13, 12) and "garments of divers colors" (2 Samuel 13:18-19) probably do not mean the color of the garment at all, but the form, as suggested in the American Revised Version, margin, "a long garment with sleeves." In Judges 5:30 the word for "dip" or "dye" appears in the original and has been so translated in the American Standard Revised Version. (see DYE). In 1 Chronicles 29:2 riqmah, meaning "variegated," hence, "varicolored," is found. In Isaiah 54:11, pukh is used. This name was applied to the sulfide of antimony (Arabic kochl) used for painting the eyes. Hence, the American Revised Version, margin rendering "antimony" instead of "fair colors" (see PAINT). In Ezekiel 16:16 Tala', is found, meaning "covered with pieces" or "spotted," hence, by implication "divers colors."ISBE Color; Colors.2

Although the ancient Hebrews had no specific words for "color," "paint" or "painter," still, as we know, they constantly met with displays of the art of coloring among the Babylonians (Ezekiel 23:14) and Egyptians and the inhabitants of Palestine Pottery, glazed bricks, glassware, tomb walls, sarcophagi, wood and fabrics were submitted to the skill of the colorist. This skill probably consisted in bringing out striking effects by the use of a few primary colors, rather than in any attempt at the blending of shades which characterizes modern coloring. That the gaudy show of their heathen neighbors attracted the children of Israel is shown by such passages as Judges 8:27; Ezekiel 23:12, 16.ISBE Color; Colors.3

Two reasons may be given for the indefiniteness of many of the Biblical references to color. (1) The origin of the Hebrew people: They had been wandering tribes or slaves with no occasion to develop a color language. (2) Their religious laws: These forbade expression in color or form (Exodus 20:4). Yielding to the attractions of gorgeous display was discouraged by such prophets as Ezekiel, who had sickened of the abominations of the Chaldeans (Ezekiel 23:14-15, 16); "And I said unto them, Cast ye away every man the abominations of his eyes" (Ezekiel 20:7).ISBE Color; Colors.4

Indefiniteness of color language is common to oriental literature, ancient and modern. This does not indicate a want of appreciation of color but a failure to analyze and define color effects. The inhabitants of Syria and Palestine today delight in brilliant colors. Bright yellow, crimson, magenta and green are used for adornment with no evident sense of fitness, according to the foreigners' eyes, other than their correspondence with the glaring brightness of the eastern skies. A soapmaker once told the writer that in order to make his wares attractive to the Arabs he colored them a brilliant crimson or yellow. A peasant chooses without hesitation a flaring magenta or yellow or green zun-nar (girdle), rather than one of somber hues. The oriental student in the chemical or physical laboratory often finds his inability to distinguish or classify color a real obstacle. His closest definition of a color is usually "lightish" or "darkish." This is not due to color blindness but to a lack of education, and extends to lines other than color distinctions. The colloquial language of Palestine today is poor in words denoting color, and an attempt to secure from a native a satisfactory description of some simple color scheme is usually disappointing. The harmonious color effects which have come to us from the Orient have been, in the past, more the result of accident (see DYE) than of deliberate purpose, as witness the clashing of colors where modern artificial dyes have been introduced.ISBE Color; Colors.5

This inability of the peoples of Bible lands to define colors is an inheritance from past ages, a consideration which helps us to appreciate the vagueness of many of the Biblical references.ISBE Color; Colors.6

The following color words occur in the King James Version or Revised Version: (1) bay, (2) black, (3) blue, (4) brown, (5) crimson, (6) green, (7) grey, (8) hoar, (9) purple, (10) red, (11) scarlet, (12) sorrel, (13) vermilion, (14) white, (15) yellow. In addition there are indefinite words indicating mixtures of light and dark: (a) grisled (grizzled), (b) ringstraked (ringstreaked), (c) speckled, (d) spotted.ISBE Color; Colors.7

(1) Bay or Red:ISBE Color; Colors.8

Bay or red is more properly translated "strong" in the Revised Version (British and American).ISBE Color; Colors.9

(2) Black (Blackish):ISBE Color; Colors.10

Eight different words have been translated "black." They indicate various meanings such as "dusky like the early dawn," "ashen," "swarthy," "moved with passion." Black is applied to hair (Leviticus 13:31; Song of Solomon 5:11; Matthew 5:36); to marble or pavement (Esther 1:6); to mourning (Job 30:28, 30; Jeremiah 14:2); to passion (Jeremiah 8:21 the King James Version; Lamentations 5:10); to horses (Zechariah 6:2, 6; Revelation 6:5); to the heavens (1 Kings 18:45; Job 3:5; Proverbs 7:9 the King James Version; Jeremiah 4:28; Micah 3:6); to the sun (Revelation 6:12); to the skin (racial) (Song of Solomon 1:5-6); to flocks (Genesis 30:32-33, 15, 40); to brooks because of ice (Job 6:16).ISBE Color; Colors.11

(3) Blue:ISBE Color; Colors.12

Blue (tekheleth, a color from the cerulean mussel): This word was applied only to fabrics dyed with a special blue dye obtained from a shellfish. See DYE. shesh in one passage of the King James Version is translated "blue" (Esther 1:6). It is properly translated in the Revised Version (British and American) "white cloth." "Blueness of a wound" (Proverbs 20:30) is correctly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "stripes that wound." Blue is applied to the fringes, veil, vestments, embroideries, etc., in the description of the ark and tabernacle (Exodus 25:1-40 ff; Numbers 4:6 f; Numbers 15:38); to workers in blue (2 Chronicles 2:7, 14; 3:14); to palace adornments (Esther 1:6); to royal apparel (Esther 8:15; Jeremiah 10:9; Ezekiel 23:6; 7, 24).ISBE Color; Colors.13

(4) Brown:ISBE Color; Colors.14

The Hebrew word meaning "sunburnt" or "swarthy" is translated "black" in the Revised Version (British and American) (Genesis 30:32 ff).ISBE Color; Colors.15

(5) Crimson:ISBE Color; Colors.16

Crimson (karmil): This word is probably of Persian origin and applies to the brilliant dye obtained from a bug. A second word tola`ath, is also found. Its meaning is the same. See DYE. Crimson is applied to raiment (2 Chronicles 2:7, 14; 3:14; Jeremiah 4:30 the King James Version); to sins (Isaiah 1:18).ISBE Color; Colors.17

(6) Green (Greenish):ISBE Color; Colors.18

This word in the translation refers almost without exception to vegetation. The Hebrew yaraq, literally, "pale," is considered one of the three definite color words used in the Old Testament (see WHITE; RED). The Greek equivalent is chloros; compare English "chlorine." This word occurs in the following vs: Genesis 1:30; 9:3; Exodus 10:15; Leviticus 2:14 (the King James Version); Leviticus 23:14 (the King James Version); 2 Kings 19:26; Psalms 37:2; Isaiah 15:6; 37:27; Job 39:8; chloros, Mark 6:39; Revelation 8:7; 9:4. ra`anan, closely allied in meaning to yaraq, is used to describe trees in the following passages: Deuteronomy 12:2; 1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 16:4; 17:10; 19:26; 2 Chronicles 28:4; Job 15:32; Psalms 37:35; 52:8; Song of Solomon 1:16; Isaiah 57:5; Jeremiah 2:20; 3:6; 11:16; 2, 8; Ezekiel 6:13; Hosea 14:8. In the remaining verses the Hebrew equivalents do not denote color, but the condition of being full of sap, fresh or unripe (compare similar uses in English) (Genesis 30:37 (the King James Version); Judges 16:7-8; Psalms 23:2; Song of Solomon 2:13; Job 8:16; Ezekiel 17:24; 20:47; Luke 23:31). In Esther 1:6 the Hebrew word refers to a fiber, probably cotton, as is indicated by the American Revised Version, margin. Greenish is used to describe leprous spots in Leviticus 13:49; 14:37. The same word is translated "yellow" in Psalms 68:13.ISBE Color; Colors.19

(7) Gray:ISBE Color; Colors.20

The Hebrew sebhah, means old age, hence, refers also to the color of the hair in old age (Genesis 42:38; 29, 31; Deuteronomy 32:25; Psalms 71:18; Hosea 7:9). See Hoar, next paragraph.ISBE Color; Colors.21

(8) Hoar (Hoary):ISBE Color; Colors.22

The same word which in other verses is translated "gray" is rendered "hoar" or "hoary," applying to the hair in 1 Kings 2:6, 9; Isaiah 46:4; Leviticus 19:32; Job 41:32; Proverbs 16:31. Another Hebrew word is translated "hoar" or "hoary," describing "frost" in Exodus 16:14; Job 38:29; Psalms 147:16.ISBE Color; Colors.23

(9) Purple:ISBE Color; Colors.24

The Hebrew equivalent is 'argaman; Greek porphura. The latter word refers to the source of the dye, namely, a shell-fish found on the shores of the Mediterranean. See DYE. This color, which varied widely according to the kind of shellfish used and the method of dyeing, was utilized in connection with the adornment of the tabernacle (Exodus 25:1-40; Exodus 26:1-37; Exodus 27:1-21; Exodus 28:1-43; Exodus 35:1-35; Exodus 36:1-38; Exodus 38:1-31; Exodus 39:1-43; Numbers 4:13). There were workers in purple called to assist in beautifying the temple (2 Chronicles 2:7, 14; 3:14). Purple was much used for royal raiment and furnishings (Judges 8:26; Esther 1:6; 8:15; Song of Solomon 3:10; Mark 15:17, 20; John 19:2, 5). Purple was typical of gorgeous apparel (Proverbs 31:22; Jeremiah 10:9; Song of Solomon 7:5; Ezekiel 27:7, 16; Luke 16:19; Acts 16:14; Revelation 17:4; 12, 16).ISBE Color; Colors.25

(10) Red:ISBE Color; Colors.26

The Hebrew 'adhom, is from dam, "blood," hence, "bloodlike." This is one of the three distinctive color words mentioned in the Old Testament (see GREEN; WHITE), and is found in most of the references to red. Four other words are used: (a) chakhlili, probably "darkened" or "clouded" (Genesis 49:12; Proverbs 23:29); (b) chamar, "to ferment" (Psalms 75:8 margin; Isaiah 27:2 the King James Version); (c) bahaT, probably "to glisten" (Esther 1:6); (d) purros "firelike" (Matthew 16:2-3; Revelation 6:4; 12:3). Red is applied to dyed skins (Exodus 25:5; 26:14; 7, 23; 36:19; Exodus 39:1-43: Exodus 34:1-35); to the color of animals (Numbers 19:2; Zechariah 1:8; 6:2; Revelation 6:4; 12:3); to the human skin (Genesis 25:25; ruddy, 1 Samuel 16:12; 17:42; Song of Solomon 5:10; Lamentations 4:7); to the eyes (Genesis 49:12; Proverbs 23:29); to sores (Leviticus 13:1-59); to wine (Psalms 75:8 m; Proverbs 23:31; Isaiah 27:2 the King James Version); to water (2 Kings 3:22); to pavement (Esther 1:6); to pottage (Genesis 25:30); to apparel (Isaiah 63:2); to the sky (Matthew 16:2-3); to sins (Isaiah 1:18); to a shield (Nahum 2:3).ISBE Color; Colors.27

(11) Scarlet:ISBE Color; Colors.28

Scarlet and crimson colors were probably from the same source (see CRIMSON; DYE). tola`ath, or derivatives have been translated by both "scarlet" and "crimson" (Greek kokkinos). A Chaldaic word for purple has thrice been translated "scarlet" in the King James Version (Daniel 5:7, 16, 29). Scarlet is applied to fabrics or yarn used (a) in the equipment of the tabernacle (Exodus 25:1-40 ff; Numbers 4:8); (b) in rites in cleansing lepers (Leviticus 14:1-57); in ceremony of purification (Numbers 19:6); to royal or gorgeous apparel (2 Samuel 1:24; Proverbs 31:21; Lamentations 4:5; Daniel 5:7, 16, 29, "purple"; Nahum 2:3; Matthew 27:28; Revelation 17:4; 12, 16); to marking thread (Genesis 38:28, 30; Joshua 2:18, 21); to lips (Song of Solomon 4:3); to sins (Isaiah 1:18); to beasts (Revelation 17:3); to wool (Hebrews 9:19).ISBE Color; Colors.29

(12) Sorrel:ISBE Color; Colors.30

This word occurs once in the Revised Version (British and American) (Zechariah 1:8).ISBE Color; Colors.31

(13) Vermilion:ISBE Color; Colors.32

This word, shashar, occurs in two passages (Jeremiah 22:14; Ezekiel 23:14). Vermilion of modern arts is a sulfide of mercury. It is not at all improbable that the paint referred to was an oxide of iron. This oxide is still taken from the ground in Syria and Palestine and used for decorative outlining.ISBE Color; Colors.33

(14) White:ISBE Color; Colors.34

The principal word for denoting whiteness in the Hebrew was labhan, a distinctive color word. Some of the objects to which it was applied show that it was used as we use the word "white" (Genesis 49:12). Mt. Lebanon was probably named because of its snow-tipped peaks (Jeremiah 18:14). White is applied to goats (Genesis 30:35); to rods (Genesis 30:37); to teeth (Genesis 49:12); to leprous hairs and spots (Leviticus 13:1-59; Numbers 12:10); to garments (Ecclesiastes 9:8; Daniel 7:9); as symbol of purity (Daniel 11:35; 12:10; Isaiah 1:18); to horses (Zechariah 1:8; 3, 1); to tree branches (Joel 1:7); to coriander seed (Exodus 16:31). The corresponding Greek word, leukos, is used in New Testament. It is applied to hair (Matthew 5:36; Revelation 1:14); to raiment (Matthew 17:2; 28:3; Mark 9:3; 16:5; Luke 9:29; John 20:12; Acts 1:10; Revelation 3:4-5, 18; 6:11; Revelation 7:9, 13-14; Revelation 19:1-21, 14); to horses (Revelation 6:2; 11, 14); to a throne (Revelation 20:11); to stone (Revelation 2:17); to a cloud (Revelation 14:14). Besides labhan, four other Hebrew words have been translated "white": (a) chori, or chur, meaning "bleached," applied to bread (Genesis 40:16); to linen (Esther 1:6; 8:15); (b) tsach, or tsachor, literally, "dazzling," is applied to asses (Judges 5:10); to human appearance (Song of Solomon 5:10); to wool (Ezekiel 27:18); (c) dar, probably mother of pearl or alabaster (Esther 1:6); (d) rir, literally, "saliva," and, from resemblance, "white of egg" (Job 6:6).ISBE Color; Colors.35

(15) Yellow:ISBE Color; Colors.36

This word occurs in Esther 1:6 to describe pavement; in Leviticus 13:1-59 to describe leprous hair; in Psalms 68:13 to describe gold.ISBE Color; Colors.37

Mixtures of colors: (a) grizzled (grisled), literally, "spotted as with hail," applied to goats (Genesis 31:10, 12); to horses (Zechariah 6:3, 1); (b) ringstreaked (ringstraked), literally, "striped with bands," applied to animals (Genesis 30:35 ff; Genesis 31:8 ff); (c) speckled, literally, "dotted or spotted," applied to cattle and goats (Genesis 30:32 ff; Genesis 31:8 ff); to a bird (Jeremiah 12:9); to horses (Zechariah 1:8 the King James Version); (d) spotted, literally, "covered with patches," applied to cattle and goats (Genesis 30:32 ff). In Jude 1:23 "spotted" means "defiled."ISBE Color; Colors.38

Figurative: For figurative uses, see under separate colors.ISBE Color; Colors.39

LITERATURE.ISBE Color; Colors.40

Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria, History of Art in Phoenicia and its Dependencies; Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians; Jewish Encyclopedia;EB; Delitzsch, Iris.ISBE Color; Colors.41

James A. PatchISBE Color; Colors.42

Colossae

Colossae - ko-los'-e (Kolossai, "punishment"; the King James Version Colosse): A city of Phrygia on the Lycus River, one of the branches of the Meander, and 3 miles from Mt. Cadmus, 8,013 ft. high. It stood at the head of a gorge where the two streams unite, and on the great highway traversing the country from Ephesus to the Euphrates valley, 13 miles from Hierapolis and 10 from Laodicea. Its history is chiefly associated with that of these two cities. Early, according to both Herodotus and Xenophon, it was a place of great importance. There Xerxes stopped 481 BC (Herodotus vii.30) and Cyrus the Younger marched 401 BC (Xen. Anab. i.2,6). From Colossians 2:1 it is not likely that Paul visited the place in person; but its Christianization was due to the efforts of Epaphras and Timothy (Colossians 1:1, 7), and it was the home of Philemon and Epaphras. That a church was established there early is evident from Colossians 4:12-13; Revelation 1:11; 3:14. As the neighboring cities, Hierapolis and Laodicea, increased in importance, Colosse declined. There were many Jews living there, and a chief article of commerce, for which the place was renowned, was the collossinus, a peculiar wool, probably of a purple color. In religion the people were specially lax, worshipping angels. Of them, Michael was the chief, and the protecting saint of the city. It is said that once he appeared to the people, saving the city in time of a flood. It was this belief in angels which called forth Paul's epistle (Colossians 2:18). During the 7th and 8th centuries the place was overrun by the Saracens; in the 12th century the church was destroyed by the Turks and the city disappeared. Its site was explored by Mr. Hamilton. The ruins of the church, the stone foundation of a large theater, and a necropolis with stones of a peculiar shape are still to be seen. During the Middle Ages the place bore the name of Chonae; it is now called Chonas.ISBE Colossae.2

E. J. BanksISBE Colossae.3

Colossians, Epistle to The

Colossians, Epistle to The - ko-losh'-ans, ko-los'-i-anz: This is one of the group of Paul's epistles known as the Captivity Epistles (see PHILEMON,EPISTLE TO , for a discussion of these as a group).ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.2

I. Authenticity. 1. External Evidence: The external evidence for the Epistle to the Colossians, prior to the middle of the 2nd century, is rather indeterminate. In Ignatius and in Polycarp we have here and there phrases and terminology that suggest an acquaintance with Colossians but not much more (Ignat., Ephes., x.3, and Polyc. x.1; compare with Colossians 1:23). The phrase in Ep Barnabas, xii, "in him are all things and unto him are all things," may be due to Colossians 1:16, but it is quite as possibly a liturgical formula. The references in Justin Martyr's Dialogue to Christ as the firstborn (prototokos) are very probably suggested by Colossians 1:15, "the firstborn of all creation" (Dial., 84, 85, 138). The first definite witness is Marcion, who included this epistle in his collection of those written by Paul (Tert., Adv. Marc., v. 19). A little later the Muratorian Fragment mentions Colossians among the Epistles of Paul (10b, l. 21, Colosensis). Irenaeus quotes it frequently and by name (Adv. haer., iii.14, 1). It is familiar to the writers of the following centuries (e.g. Tert., De praescrip., 7; Clement of Alexandria, Strom., I, 1; Orig., Contra Celsum, v. 8).ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.3

2. Internal Evidence: The authenticity was not questioned until the second quarter of the 19th century when Mayerhoff claimed on the ground of style, vocabulary, and thought that it was not by the apostle. The Tubingen school claimed, on the basis of a supposed Gnosticism, that the epistle was the work of the 2nd century and so not Pauline. This position has been thoroughly answered by showing that the teaching is essentially different from the Gnosticism of the 2nd century, especially in the conception of Christ as prior to and greater than all things created (see V below). The attack in later years has been chiefly on the ground of vocabulary and style, the doctrinal position, especially the Christology and the teaching about angels, and the relation to the Ephesian epistle. The objection on the ground of vocabulary and style is based, as is so often the case, on the assumption that a man, no matter what he writes about, must use the same words and style. There are thirty-four words in Colossians which are not in any other New Testament book. When one removes those that are due to the difference in subject-matter, the total is no greater than that of some of the acknowledged epistles. The omission of familiar Pauline particles, the use of genitives, of "all" (pas), and of synonyms, find parallels in other epistles, or are due to a difference of subject, or perhaps to the influence on the language of the apostle of his life in Rome (von Soden). The doctrinal position is not at heart contradictory to Paul's earlier teaching (compare Godet, Introduction to the New Testament; Paul's Epistles, 440 f). The Christology is in entire harmony with Phil (which see) which is generally admitted as Pauline, and is only a development of the teaching in 1 Cor (8:6; 15:24-28), especially in respect of the emphasis laid on "the cosmical activity of the preincarnate Christ." Finally, the form in which Paul puts the Christology is that best calculated to meet the false teaching of the Colossian heretics (compare V below). In recent years H. Holtzmann has advocated that this epistle is an interpolated form of an original Pauline epistle to the Colossians, and the work of the author of the Epistle to the Ephesians (which see). A modification of this theory of interpolation has recently been suggested by J. Weiss (Theologische Literaturzeitung, September 29, 1900). Both these theories are too complicated to stand, and even von Soden, who at first followed Holtzmann, has abandoned the position (von Soden, Einleitung., 12); while Sanday (DB2) has shown how utterly untenable it is. Sober criticism today has come to realize that it is impossible to deny the Pauline authorship of this epistle. This position is strengthened by the close relationship between Colossians and Philemon, of which Renan says: "Paul alone, so it would seem, could have written this little masterpiece" (Abbott, International Critical Commentary, lviii). If Philemon (which see) stands as Pauline, as it must, then the authenticity of Colossians is established beyond controversy.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.4

II. Place and Date. The Pauline authorship being established, it becomes evident at once that the apostle wrote Colossians along with the other Captivity Epistles, and that it is best dated from Rome (see PHILEMON,EPISTLE TO ), and during the first captivity. This would be about 58 or, if the later chronology is preferred, 63 or 64.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.5

III. Destination. The epistle was written, on the face of it, to the church at COLOSSAE (which see), a town in the Lycus valley where the gospel had been preached most probably by Epaphras (Colossians 1:17; 4:12), and where Paul was, himself, unknown personally (1:4,8,9; 2:1,5). From the epistle it is evident that the Colossian Christians were Gentiles (1:27) for whom, as such, the apostle feels a responsibility (2:1 ff). He sends to them Tychicus (4:7), who is accompanied by Onesimus, one of their own community (4:9), and urges them to be sure to read another letter which will reach them from Laodicea (4:16).ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.6

IV. Relation to Other New Testament Writings. Beyond the connection with Ephesians (which see) we need notice only the relation between Colossians and Rev. In the letter to Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-21) we have two expressions: "the beginning of the creation of God," and "I will give to him to sit down with me in my throne," in which we have an echo of Colossians which "suggests an acquaintance with and recognition of the earlier apostle's teaching on the part of John" (Lightfoot, Colossians, 42, note 5).ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.7

V. The Purpose. The occasion of the epistle was, we may be sure, the information brought by Epaphras that the church in Colosse was subject to the assault of a body of Judaistic Christians who were seeking to overthrow the faith of the Colossians and weaken their regard for Paul (Zahn). This "heresy," as it is commonly called, has had many explanations. The Tubingen school taught that it was gnostic, and sought to find in the terms the apostle used evidence for the 2nd century composition of the epistle. Pleroma and gnosis ("fullness" and "knowledge") not only do not require this interpretation, but will not admit it. The very heart of Gnosticism, i.e. theory of emanation and the dualistic conception which regards matter as evil, finds no place in Colossians. The use of pleroma in this and the sister epistle, Eph, does not imply Gnostic views, whether held by the apostle or by the readers of the letters. The significance in Colossians of this and the other words adopted by Gnosticism in later years is quite distinct from that later meaning. The underlying teaching is equally distinct. The Christ of the Colossians is not the aeon Christ of Gnosticism. In Essenism, on the other hand, Lightfoot and certain Germans seek the origin of this heresy. Essenism has certain affinities with Gnosticism on the one side and Judaism on the other. Two objections are raised against this explanation of the origin of the Colossian heresy. In the first place Essenism, as we know it, is found in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, and there is no evidence for its establishment in the Lycus valley. In the second place, no references are found in Colossians to certain distinct Essene teachings, e.g. those about marriage, washings, communism, Sabbath rules, etc.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.8

The Colossian heresy is due to Judaistic influences on the one hand and to native beliefs and superstitions on the other. The Judaistic elements in this teaching are patent, circumcision (2:11), the Law (2:14,15), and special seasons (2:16). But there is more than Judaism in this false teaching. Its teachers look to intermediary spirits, angels whom they worship; and insist on a very strict asceticism. To seek the origin of angel worship in Judaism, as is commonly done, is, as A. L. Williams has shown, to miss the real significance of the attitude of the Jews to angels and to magnify the bitter jeers of Celsus. Apart from phrases used in exorcism and magic he shows us that there is no evidence that the Jew ever worshipped angels (JTS, X, 413 f). This element in the Colossian heresy was local, finding its antecedent in the worship of the river spirits, and in later years the same tendency gave the impulse to the worship of Michael as the patron saint of Colosse (so too Ramsay, Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible (five volumes), under the word "Colossae"). The danger of and the falsehood in this teaching were twofold. In the first place it brought the gospel under the bands of the Law once more, not now with the formality of the Galatian opponents, but none the less surely. But as the apostle's readers are Gentiles (1:27) Paul is not interested in showing the preparatory aspect of the Law. He simply insists to them that they are quite free from all obligations of the Law because Christ, in whom they have been baptized (2:12), has blotted out all the Law (2:14). The second danger is that their belief in and worship of the heavenly powers, false ideas about Christ and the material world, would develop even further than it had. They, because of their union with Him, need fear no angelic being. Christ has triumphed over them all, leading them as it were captives in His train (2:15), as He conquered on the cross. The spiritual powers cease to have any authority over the Christians. It is to set Christ forward, in this way, as Head over all creation as very God, and out of His relation to the church and to the universe to develop the Christian life, that the apostle writes.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.9

VI. Argument. The argument of the Epistle is as follows:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.10

Colossians 1:1-2:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.11

Salutation.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.12

Colossians 1:3-8:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.13

Thanksgiving for their faith in Christ, their love for the saints, their hope laid up in heaven, which they had in and through the gospel and of which he had heard from Epaphras.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.14

Colossians 1:9-13:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.15

Prayer that they might be filled with the full knowledge of God's will so as to walk worthy of the Lord and to be fruitful in good works, thankful for their inheritance of the kingdom of His Son.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.16

Colossians 1:14-23:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.17

Statement of the Son's position, from whom we have redemption. He is the very image of God, Creator, pre-existent, the Head of the church, preeminent over all, in whom all the fullness (pleroma) dwells, the Reconciler of all things, as also of the Colossians, through His death, provided they are faithful to the hope of the gospel.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.18

Colossians 1:24 through Colossians 2:5:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.19

By his suffering he is filling up the sufferings of Christ, of whom he is a minister, even to reveal the great mystery of the ages, that Christ is in them, the Gentiles, the hope of glory, the object of the apostle's preaching everywhere. This explains Paul's interest in them, and his care for them, that their hearts may be strengthened in the love and knowledge of Christ.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.20

Colossians 2:6 through Colossians 3:4:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.21

He then passes to exhortation against those who are leading them astray, these false teachers of a vain, deceiving philosophy based on worldly wisdom, who ignore the truth of Christ's position, as One in whom all the Divine pleroma dwells, and their relation to Him, united by baptism; raised through the faith; quickened and forgiven; who teach the obligation of the observance of various legal practices, strict asceticisms and angel worship. This exhortation is closed with the appeal that as Christ's they will not submit to these regulations of men which are useless, especially in comparison with Christ's power through the Resurrection.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.22

Colossians 3:5-17:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.23

Practical exhortations follow to real mortification of the flesh with its characteristics, and the substitution of a new life of fellowship, love and peace.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.24

Colossians 3:18 through Colossians 4:1:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.25

Exhortation to fulfill social obligations, as wives, husbands, children, parents, slaves and masters.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.26

Colossians 4:2-6:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.27

Exhortation to devout and watchful prayer.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.28

Colossians 4:7-18:ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.29

Salutations and greeting.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.30

LITERATURE.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.31

Lightfoot, Paul's Epistles to the Colossians and Philemon; Abbott, Ephesians and Colossians, International Critical Commentary; Peake, Colossians, Expositor's Greek Testament; Maclaren, Colossians, Expositor's Bible; Alexander, Colossians and Ephesians, Bible for Home and School; Moule, Colossians, Cambridge Bible; Haupt, Meyer's Krit. u. Exeg. Kom.; von Soden, Hand-Kom. zum New Testament.ISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.32

C. S. LewisISBE Colossians, Epistle to The.33

Colt; Foal

Colt; Foal - kolt (`ayir, ben; polos, huios, with some word such as hupozugiou, understood; huios alone = "son"): The English words "colt" and "foal" are used in the Bible of the ass everywhere except in Genesis 32:15, where the word "colt" is used of the camel in the list of animals destined by Jacob as presents for Esau. In most cases `ayir (compare Arabic `air, "ass") means "ass's colt," but it may be joined with ben, "son," as in Zechariah 9:9, where we have: `al-chamor we`al-`ayir ben-'athonoth, literally, "on an epi onon kai epi polon huion hupozugiou, "upon an ass, and upon a colt ass, and on an ass's colt, the son of the she-asses"; compare Matthew 21:5 epi onon kai epi polon huion hupozugiou, "upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass." In John 12:15 we have epi polon onou, and in the previous verse the diminutive, onarion. The commonest New Testament word for "colt" is polos, akin to which is German Fohle and English "foal" and "filly." The Latin pullus signifies either "foal" or "chicken," and in the latter sense gives rise to French poulet and English "pullet."ISBE Colt; Foal.2

In view of the fact that horses are but little mehtioned in the Bible, and that only in connection with royal equipages and armies, it is not surprising that "colt" does not occur in its ordinary English sense.ISBE Colt; Foal.3

Alfred Ely DayISBE Colt; Foal.4

Come

Come - kum: The translation of many Hebrew and Greek words. In the phrase "The Spirit of Yahweh came mightily upon him" (Judges 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Samuel 10:10; 11:6; 16:13), the word is tsaleah; Judges 14:6; 15:14 "came mightily," which is the uniform translation of the Revised Version (British and American) (compare Judges 13:25 "to move," i.e. to disturb or stir up). In Judges 6:34; 1 Chronicles 12:18; 2 Chronicles 24:20, it is labhesh, "to clothe"; the Revised Version, margin "The Spirit .... clothed itself with Gideon" and .... "with Zechariah," "The Spirit clothed Amasai."ISBE Come.2

Among its many changes, the Revised Version (British and American) has "come forth" for "come" (Matthew 2:6); "gone up" for "come" (Matthew 14:32, a different text); "come all the way" for "come" (John 4:15); "got out upon the" for "come to" (John 21:9); "draw near" for "come" (Hebrews 4:16); "come" for "come and see" (Revelation 6:1); "secure" for "come by" (Acts 27:16); "attain unto" for "come in" (Ephesians 4:13); and "I come" for "I come again" (John 14:28).ISBE Come.3

W. L. WalkerISBE Come.4

Comeliness; Comely

Comeliness; Comely - kum'-li-nes, kum'-li: Cognate with "becoming," namely, what is suitable, graceful, handsome. The servant of Yahweh in Isaiah 53:2 is without "comeliness" (hadhar, "honor"), i.e. there is in his appearance nothing attractive, while he is bowed beneath man's sin. "Praise is comely" (na'wah, f. of na'weh; Psalms 33:1; 147:1), i.e. suitable or befitting "for the righteous," and, therefore, an honor and glory; "uncomely parts," aschemona (1 Corinthians 12:23), namely, less honorable. See also 1 Samuel 16:18, "a comely person"; Song of Solomon 6:4, "comely as Jerusalem." etc.ISBE Comeliness; Comely.2

Comfort

Comfort - kum'-fert (nacham; parakaleo): The New Testament word is variously translated, as "comfort," "exhort," "beseech," the exact translation to be determined by the context. Etymologically, it is "to call alongside of," i.e. to summon for assistance. To comfort is to cheer and encourage. It has a positive force wanting in its synonym "console," as it indicates the dispelling of grief by the impartation of strength. the Revised Version (British and American) has correctly changed the translation of paramutheomai from the King James Version "comfort," to "consolation." So in the Old Testament, "Comfort ye my people" (Isaiah 40:1) is much stronger than "console," which affords only the power of calm endurance of affliction, while the brightest hopes of the future and the highest incentives to present activity are the gifts of the Divine grace that is here bestowed.ISBE Comfort.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Comfort.3

Comfortably

Comfortably - kum'-fer-ta-bli (`al lebh, "to the heart"): "To speak to the heart," i.e. to speak kindly, to console, to comfort, is the ordinary Hebrew expression for wooing: e.g. Boaz spake "to the heart" of Ruth (Ruth 2:13 margin; the King James Version "friendly," the Revised Version (British and American) "kindly"). The beauty of the Hebrew term is illustrated in Genesis 50:21 where Joseph "spake kindly" unto his brethren, winning them from fear to confidence. Rendered "comfortably" in five passages: thrice of human speaking, and twice of the tenderness of God's address to His people. David was urged to win back the hearts of the people by kind words: "speak comfortably" (2 Samuel 19:7). Hezekiah in like manner comforted the Levites (2 Chronicles 30:22) and encouraged his captains (2 Chronicles 32:6). The term has exceptional wealth of meaning in connection with God's message of grace and forgiveness to His redeemed people. The compassionate love that has atoned for their sins speaks to the heart ("comfortably") of Jerusalem, saying "that her iniquity is pardoned" (Isaiah 40:2). The same promise of forgiveness is given to the penitent nation by the prophet Hosea (Hosea 2:14); "comfortable words" (Zechariah 1:13), i.e. words affording comfort.ISBE Comfortably.2

Dwight M. PrattISBE Comfortably.3

Comforter

Comforter - kum'-fer-ter: This is translation of the word patakletos, in the Johannine writings. In the Gospel it occurs in John 14:16, 26; 15:26; 16:7, and refers to the Holy Spirit. The word means literally, "called to one's side" for help. The translation "Comforter" covers only a small part of the meaning as shown in the context. The word "Helper" would be a more adequate translation. The Spirit does a great deal for disciples besides comforting them, although to comfort was a part of His work for them. The Spirit guides into truth; indeed, He is called the Spirit of truth. He teaches and quickens the memory of disciples and glorifies Christ in them. He also has a work to do in the hearts of unbelievers, convicting the world of sin, of righteousness, and of judgment (John 14:1-31 through John 16:1-33). The Comforter remains permanently with disciples after He comes in response to the prayers of Christ. The word parakletos does not occur elsewhere in the Scriptures except in 1 John 2:1. In Job 16:2 the active form of the word (parakletos is passive) is found in the plural, where Job calls his friends "miserable comforters." The word "Comforter" being an inadequate, and the word "Helper" a too indefinite, translation of the word in the Gospel of John, it would probably be best to transfer the Greek word into English in so far as it relates to the Holy Spirit (see PARACLETE).ISBE Comforter.2

In 1 John 2:1 the word parakletos refers to Christ: "If any man sin, we have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous." Here the translation Advocate is quite correct. As the next verse shows the writer has in mind the intercession of Christ for Christians on the basis of His mediatorial work: "And he is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for the whole world" (1 John 2:2).ISBE Comforter.3

See ADVOCATE; HOLY SPIRIT; PARACLETE.ISBE Comforter.4

E. Y. MullinsISBE Comforter.5

Comfortless

Comfortless - kum'-fert-les (orphanous, "orphans"): The Greek original is found but twice in the New Testament; rendered "comfortless" in John 14:18, the Revised Version (British and American) "desolate"; "fatherless" in James 1:27 (compare Psalms 68:5). The term signifies bereft of a father, parents, guardian, teacher, guide, and indicates what must be the permanent ministry of the Holy Spirit to the disciples of Jesus, in comforting their hearts. In harmony with these parting words Jesus had called the chosen twelve "little children" (John 13:33); without Him they would be "orphans," comfortless, desolate. The coming of the Holy Spirit would make Christ and the Father forever real to them, an abiding spiritual presence.ISBE Comfortless.2

Dwight M. PrattISBE Comfortless.3

Coming of Christ

Coming of Christ - See ADVENT; PAROUSIA.ISBE Coming of Christ.2

Coming, Second

Coming, Second - See PAROUSIA.ISBE Coming, Second.2

Commandment, the New

Commandment, the New - nu (entole kaine): The word "commandment" is used in the English versions of the Old Testament to translate several Hebrew words, more especially those meaning "word" (dabhar) as the ten words of God (Exodus 34:28) or king's "command" (Esther 1:12); "precept" (mitswah) of God (Deuteronomy 4:2), of a king (2 Kings 18:36); "mouth" or "speech" (peh) of God (Exodus 17:1), of Pharaoh (2 Kings 23:35). They express theocratic idea of morality wherein the will or law of God is imposed upon men as their law of conduct (2 Kings 17:37).ISBE Commandment, the New.2

1. Christ and the Old Commandment: This idea is not repudiated in the New Testament, but supplemented or modified from within by making love the essence of the command. Jesus Christ, as reported in the Synoptics, came not "to destroy the law or the prophets .... but to fulfill" (Matthew 5:17). He taught that "whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven" (Matthew 5:19). He condemned the Pharisees for rejecting the commandments of God as given by Moses (Mark 7:8-13). There is a sense in which it is true that Christ propounded no new commandment, but the new thing in His teaching was the emphasis laid on the old commandment of love, and the extent and intent of its application. The great commandment is "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, .... (and) thy neighbor as thyself. On these two commandments the whole law hangeth, and the prophets" (Matthew 22:34-40; Mark 12:28-34; compare Deuteronomy 6:5; Leviticus 19:18).ISBE Commandment, the New.3

2. Principle instead of Law: Whey the law realizes itself as love for God and man in men's hearts, it ceases to bear the aspect of a command. The force of authority and the active resistance or inertia of the subject disappear; the law becomes a principle, a motive, a joyous harmony of man's will with the will of God; and in becoming internal, it becomes universal and transcends all distinctions of race or class. Even this was not an altogether new idea (compare Jeremiah 31:31-34; Psalms 51:1-19); nor did Christ's contemporaries and disciples think it was.ISBE Commandment, the New.4

3. Christ's Love Fulfilled in Death Becomes the Law of the Church:ISBE Commandment, the New.5

The revolutionary factor was the death of Christ wherein the love of God was exemplified and made manifest as the basis and principle of all spiritual life (John 13:34). Paul therefore generalizes all pre-Christian morality as a system of law and commandments, standing in antithesis to the grace and love which are through Jesus Christ (Romans 5:1-21 through Romans 7:1-25). Believers in Christ felt their experience and inward life to be so changed and new, that it needed a new term (agape = "love") to express their ideal of conduct (see CHARITY). Another change that grew upon the Christian consciousness, following from the resurrection and ascension of Christ, was the idea that He was the permanent source of the principle of life. "Jesus is Lord" (1 Corinthians 12:3). Hence, in the Johannine writings the principle described by the new term agape is associated with Christ's lordship and solemnly described as His "new commandment." "A new commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another; even as I have loved you, that ye also love one another" (John 13:34). To the Christians of the end of the 1st century it was already an old commandment which they had from the beginning of the Christian teaching (1 John 2:7; 2 John 1:5); but it was also a new commandment which ever came with new force to men who were passing from the darkness of hatred to the light of love (1 John 2:8-11).ISBE Commandment, the New.6

4. The New Revelation: The term in the Gospel we may owe to the evangelist, but it brings into relief an element in the consciousness of Jesus which the author of the Fourth Gospel had appreciated more fully than the Synoptists. Jesus was aware that He was the bearer of a special message from the Father (John 12:49; Matthew 11:27), that He fulfilled His mission in His death of love and self-sacrifice (John 10:18), and that the mission fulfilled gave Him authority over the lives of men, "even as I have loved you, that ye also love one another." The full meaning of Christ's teaching was only realized when men had experienced and recognized the significance of His death as the cause and principle of right conduct. The Synoptists saw Christ's teaching as the development of the prophetic teaching of the Old Testament. Paul and John felt that the love of God in Christ was a new thing: (a) new as a revelation of God in Christ, (b) new as a principle of life in the church, and (c) new as a union of believers with Christ. While it is love, it is also a commandment of Christ, calling forth the joyous obedience of believers.ISBE Commandment, the New.7

See also BROTHERLY LOVE .ISBE Commandment, the New.8

T. ReesISBE Commandment, the New.9

Commandment; Commandments

Commandment; Commandments - ko-mand'-ment (mitswah; entole): The commandments are, first of all, prescriptions, or directions of God, concerning particular matters, which He wanted observed with reference to circumstances as they arose, in a period when He spake immediately and with greater frequency than afterward. They were numerous, minute, and regarded as coordinate and independent of each other. In the Ten Commandments, or, more properly, Ten Words, EVm (debharim), they are reduced to a few all-comprehensive precepts of permanent validity, upon which every duty required of man is based. Certain prescriptions of temporary force, as those of the ceremonial and forensic laws, are applications of these "Words" to transient circumstances, and, for the time for which they were enacted, demanded perfect and unconditional obedience. The Psalms, and especially Psalms 119:1-176, show that even under the Old Testament, there was a deep spiritual appreciation of these commandments, and the extent to which obedience was deemed a privilege rather than a mere matter of constrained external compliance with duty. In the New Testament, Jesus shows in Matthew 22:37, 40; Mark 12:29, 31; Luke 10:27 (compare Romans 13:8, 10) their organic unity. The "Ten" are reduced to two, and these two to one principle, that of love. In love, obedience begins, and works from within outward. Under the New Testament the commandments are kept when they are written upon the heart (Hebrews 10:16). While in the Synoptics they are referred to in a more abstract and distant way, in both the Gospel and the Epistles of John their relation to Jesus is most prominent. They are "my commandments" (John 14:15, 21; 10, 12); "my Father's" (John 10:18; 15:10); or, many times throughout the epp., "his (i.e. Christ's) commandments." The new life in Christ enkindles love, and not only makes the commandments the rule of life, but the life itself the free expression of the commandments and of the nature of God, in which the commandments are grounded. Occasionally the word is used in the singular collectively (Exodus 24:12; Psalms 119:96; 1 Corinthians 14:37).ISBE Commandment; Commandments.2

See TEN COMMANDMENTS, THE.ISBE Commandment; Commandments.3

H. E. JacobsISBE Commandment; Commandments.4

Commandments, the Ten

Commandments, the Ten - See COMMANDMENT; TEN COMMANDMENTS.ISBE Commandments, the Ten.2

Commend

Commend - ko-mend':ISBE Commend.2

(1) For paratithemi (Luke 23:46), translating the Hebrew paqadh (Psalms 31:5), in the dying words of Jesus: "Into thy hands I commend my Spirit." the King James Version in Psalms has the more general word "commit." The use of the Greek word in the sense of "deposit what belongs to one into the hands of another" is not uncommon in the classics. So also the derivatives paratheke (2 Timothy 1:12) and parakatatheke (1 Timothy 6:20; 2 Timothy 1:14). See DEPOSIT. This sense of the English, while slightly archaic, corresponds to the first meaning of the Latin, whence it comes, "to commit for preservation," especially of the dying; to commend children, parents, etc., to the care of others (for examples, see Harper's Latin Dictionary).ISBE Commend.3

(2) For sunistiemi, "to stand together," and then, by standing together, to establish, prove, exhibit, as "righteousness" and "love of God" (Romans 3:5; 5:8), and thus to attest (2 Corinthians 3:1; 4:2), and, finally, to certify or to recommend a stranger (Romans 16:1; 2 Corinthians 6:4). The use of paristemi in 1 Corinthians 8:8 is equivalent.ISBE Commend.4

(3) "To praise," epaineo (Luke 16:8), and sunistemi in 2 Corinthians 10:12, 18; for the Old Testament, Hebrew hillel, in Genesis 12:15 the King James Version; Proverbs 12:8.ISBE Commend.5

H. E. JacobsISBE Commend.6

Commentaries

Commentaries - kom'-en-ta-riz:ISBE Commentaries.2

I. THE WORD--GENERAL SCOPEISBE Commentaries.3

II. DIFFERENCES IN CHARACTER OF COMMENTARIESISBE Commentaries.4

III. RANGE OF COMMENTARIESISBE Commentaries.5

1. Early CommentariesISBE Commentaries.6

(1) Origen, etc.ISBE Commentaries.7

(2) Chrysostom, etc.ISBE Commentaries.8

2. Scholastic PeriodISBE Commentaries.9

Nicolas de LyraISBE Commentaries.10

3. Reformation and Post-Reformation PeriodsISBE Commentaries.11

(1) Luther and CalvinISBE Commentaries.12

(2) Beza, Grotius, etc.ISBE Commentaries.13

(3) Later WritersISBE Commentaries.14

4. 18th CenturyISBE Commentaries.15

(1) Calmer, M. Henry, etc.ISBE Commentaries.16

(2) Patrick, Lowth, ScottISBE Commentaries.17

(3) Gill, DoddridgeISBE Commentaries.18

(4) BengelISBE Commentaries.19

5. The Modern Period--Its CharacteristicsISBE Commentaries.20

(1) GermanyISBE Commentaries.21

(a) The Liberal SchoolISBE Commentaries.22

(b) Believing TendencyISBE Commentaries.23

(i) ConservativeISBE Commentaries.24

(ii) CriticalISBE Commentaries.25

(iii) MediatingISBE Commentaries.26

(iv) ConfessionalISBE Commentaries.27

(v) Godet (Swiss)ISBE Commentaries.28

(2) Britain and AmericaISBE Commentaries.29

(a) Alford, EadieISBE Commentaries.30

(b) Ellicott and LightfootISBE Commentaries.31

(c) WestcottISBE Commentaries.32

(d) Critical Influences--Broad ChurchISBE Commentaries.33

Stanley and JowettISBE Commentaries.34

(e) General Commentaries (Series)ISBE Commentaries.35

6. Recent PeriodISBE Commentaries.36

(1) GermanyISBE Commentaries.37

(2) Britain and AmericaISBE Commentaries.38

LITERATUREISBE Commentaries.39

I. The Word--General Scope. Etymologically, a commentary (from Latin commentor) denotes jottings, annotations, memoranda, on a given subject, or perhaps on a series of events; hence, its use in the plural as a designation for a narrative or history, as the Commentaries of Caesar. In its application to Scripture, the word designates a work devoted to the explanation, elucidation, illustration, sometimes the homiletic expansion and edifying utilization, of the text of some book or portion of Scripture. The primary function of a good commentary is to furnish an exact interpretation of the meaning of the passage under consideration; it belongs to it also to show the connection of ideas, the steps of argument, the scope and design of the whole, in the writing in question. This can only be successfully accomplished by the help of a knowledge of the original language of the writing, and of the historical setting of the particular passage; by careful study of the context, and of the author's general usages of thought and speech; and by comparison of parallel or related texts. Aid may also be obtained from external sources, as a knowledge of the history, archaeology, topography, chronology, manners and customs, of the lands, peoples and times referred to; or, as in Deissmann's recent discoveries, from the light thrown on peculiarities of language by papyri or other ancient remains (see his Light from the Ancient East).ISBE Commentaries.40

II. Differences in Character of Commentaries. It is obvious that commentaries will vary greatly in character and value according as they are more scholarly, technical, and critical, entering, e.g. into philological discussions, and tabulating and remarking upon the various views held as to the meaning; or again, more popular, aiming only at bringing out the general sense, and conveying it to the mind of the reader in attractive and edifying form. When the practical motive predominates, and the treatment is greatly enlarged by illustration, application, and the enforcement of lessons, the work loses the character of commentary proper, and partakes more of the character of homily or discourse.ISBE Commentaries.41

III. Range of Commentaries. No book in the world has been made the subject of so much commenting and exposition as the Bible. Theological libraries are full of commentaries of all descriptions and all grades of worth. Some are commentaries on the original Hebrew or Greek texts; some on the English or other versions Modern commentaries are usually accompanied with some measure of introduction to the books commented upon; the more learned works have commonly also some indication of the data for the determination of the textual readings (see TEXTUAL CRITICISM ). Few writers are equal to the task of commenting with profit on the Bible as a whole, and, with the growth of knowledge, this task is now seldom attempted. Frequently, however, one writer contributes many valuable works, and sometimes, by cooperation of like-minded scholars, commentaries on the whole Bible are produced. It is manifestly a very slight survey that can be taken in a brief article of the work of commenting, and of the literature to which it has given rise; the attempt can only be made to follow the lines most helpful to those seeking aid from this class of books. On the use and abuse of commentaries by the preacher, C. H. Spurgeon's racy remarks in his Commenting and Commentaries may be consulted.ISBE Commentaries.42

1. Early Commentaries: Rabbinical interpretations and paraphrases of the Old Testament may here be left out of account (see next article; also TARGUM; TALMUD; F. W. Farrar's History of Interpretation, Lect II). Commentaries on the New Testament could not begin till the New Testament books themselves were written, and had acquired some degree of authority as sacred writings (see BIBLE). The earliest commentaries we hear of are from the heretical circles of the Gnostics. Heracleon, a Valentinian (circa 175 AD), wrote a commentary on the Gospel of John (fragments in Origen), and on parts at least of the Gospel of Luke. Tatian, a disciple of Justin Martyr, about the same time, compiled his Diatessaron, or Harmony of the Four Gospels, on which, at a later time, commentaries were written. Ephraem Syrus (4th century) wrote such a commentary, of which an Armenian translation has now been recovered. The Church Father Hippolytus (beginning of 3rd century), wrote several commentaries on the Old Testament (Exodus, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Zechariah, etc.), and on Matthew, Luke and Revelation.ISBE Commentaries.43

(1) Origen, etc.ISBE Commentaries.44

The strongest impulse, however, to the work of commenting and exposition of Holy Scripture undoubtedly proceeded from the school of Alexandria--especially from Origen (203-254 AD). Clement, Origen's predecessor, had written a treatise called Hupotuposeis, or "Outlines," a survey of the contents of Holy Scripture. Origen himself wrote commentaries on all the books of the Old Testament, Ruth, Est and Eccl alone excepted, and on most of the books of the New Testament (Mark, 1 and 2 Corinthians, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 3 John, James, Jude, Revelation excepted). He furnished besides, scholia, or notes on difficult passages, and delivered Homilies, or discourses, the records of which fill three folio volumes. "By his Tetrapla and Hexapla," says Farrar, "he became the founder of all textual criticism; by his Homilies he fixed the type of a popular exposition; his scholia were the earliest specimens of marginal explanations; his commentaries furnished the church with her first continuous exegesis" (op. cit., 188). Unfortunately, the Alexandrian school adopted a principle of allegorical interpretation which led it frequently into the most extravagant fancies. Assuming a threefold sense in Scripture--a literal, a moral, and a spiritual--it gave reins to caprice in foisting imaginary meanings on the simplest historical statements (Farrar, op. cit., 189 ff). Some of Origen's commentaries, however, are much freer from allegory than others, and all possess high value (compare Lightfoot, Galatians, 217). The later teachers of the Alexandrian school continued the exegetical works of Origen. Pamphilus of Caesarea, the friend of Eusebius, is said to have written Old Testament commentaries.ISBE Commentaries.45

(2) Chrysostom, etc.ISBE Commentaries.46

At the opposite pole from the allegorizing Alexandrian school of interpretation was the Antiochinn, marked by a sober, literal and grammatical style of exegesis. Its reputed founder was Lucian (martyred 311 AD); but its real heads were Diodorus of Tarsus( 379-94 AD) and Theodore of Mopsuestia (393-428 AD); and its most distinguished representative was John Chrysostom (347-407 AD). Chrysostom wrote continuous commentaries on Isaiah (only Isaiah 1:1-31 through Isaiah 8:10 remaining) and on Galatians; but his chief contributions were his Homilies, covering almost the whole of the Old Testament and New Testament. Of these over 600 remain, chiefly on the New Testament. They are unequal in character, those on Acts being reputed the feeblest; others, as those on Matthew, Romans and Corinthians, are splendid examples of expository teaching. Schaff speaks of Chrysostom as "the prince of commentators among the Fathers" ( History, Ante-Nicene Per., 816). Thomas Aquinas is reported to have said that he would rather possess Chrysostom's homilies on Matthew than be master of all Paris. In the West, Ambrose of Milan (340-97 AD) wrote expositions of Old Testament histories and of Luke (allegorical and typical), and Jerome (346-420 AD) wrote numerous commentaries on Old Testament and New Testament books, largely, however, compilations from others.ISBE Commentaries.47

2. Scholastic Period: The medieval and scholastic period offers little for our purpose. There was diligence in copying manuscripts, and producing catenae of the opinions of the Fathers; in the case of the schoolmen, in building up elaborate systems of theology; but the Scriptures were thrown into the background.ISBE Commentaries.48

Nicolas de Lyra.ISBE Commentaries.49

The 14th century, however, produced one commentator of real eminence--Nicolas de Lyra (1270-1340). Nicolas was a Franciscan monk, well versed in Hebrew and rabbinical learning. While recognizing the usual distinctions of the various senses of Scripture, he practically builds on the literal, and exhibits great sobriety and skill in his interpretations. His work, which bears the name Postillae Perpetuae in Universa Biblia, was much esteemed by Luther, who acknowledged his indebtedness to it. Hence, the jest of his opponents, Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lutherus non saltasset (a notice of Lyra may be seen in Farrar, op. cit., 274-78).ISBE Commentaries.50

3. Reformation and Post-Reformation Periods: The Reformation brought men's minds back to the Scriptures and opened a new era in Biblical exposition and commentary. It became the custom to expound the Scriptures on Sundays and week-days in all the pulpits of the Protestant churches. "Luther's custom was to expound consecutively in a course of sermons the Old and New Testaments" (Kostlin). The Reformation began at Zurich with a series of discourses by Zwingli on the Gospel of Matthew. The same was true of Calvin, Beza, Knox and all associated with them. The production of commentaries or expository homilies was the necessary result.ISBE Commentaries.51

(1) Luther and Calvin. As outstanding examples may be mentioned Luther's Commentary on Galatians, and the noble commentaries of Calvin. Not all by any means, but very many of the commentaries of Calvin were the fruit of pulpit prelections (e.g. the expositions of Job, the Minor Prophets, Jeremiah, Daniel). Others, as the commentaries on Romans and the Psalms (reputed his best), were prepared with great care. Calvin's supreme excellence as a commentator is disputed by no one. From every school and shade of opinion in Christendom could be produced a chorus of testimony to the remarkable gifts of mind and heart displayed in his expositions of Scripture--to his breadth, moderation, fairness and modernness of spirit, in exhibiting the sense of inward genius of Holy Writ. The testimony of Arminius is as striking as any: "I exhort my pupils to peruse Calvin's commentaries .... for I affirm that he excels beyond comparison in the interpretation of Scripture, and that his commentaries ought to be more highly valued than all that is handed down to us by the library of the Fathers."ISBE Commentaries.52

(2) Beza, Grotius, etc.ISBE Commentaries.53

Lutheranism had its distinguished exegetes (Brenz, died 1572), who wrote able commentaries on the Old Testament, and in both the Calvinistic and Arminian branches of the Reformed church the production of commentaries held a chief place. Beza, Calvin's successor, is acknowledged to have possessed many of the best exegetical qualities which characterized his master. Grotius, in Holland (died 1645), occupies the foremost place among the expositors in this century on the Arminian side. His exegetical works, if not marked by much spirituality, show sagacity and learning, and are enriched by parallels from classical literature. The school of Cocceius (died 1669) developed the doctrine of the covenants, and reveled in typology. Cocceius wrote commentaries on nearly all the books of Scripture. His pupil Vitringa (died 1716) gained renown by his expositions of Isa and the Apocalypse.ISBE Commentaries.54

(3) Later writers. Partly fostered by the habit of basing commentary on pulpit exposition, the tendency early set in to undue prolixity in the unfolding of the meaning of Scripture. "In the Lutheran church," says Van Oosterzee, "they began to preach on whole books of the Bible; sometimes in a very prolix manner, as, e.g. in the case of the 220 sermons by one Striegnitz, a preacher at Meissen, on the history of Jonah, of which four are devoted to the consideration of the words `Unto Jonah' " (Practical Theol., 120). The habit spread. The commentaries of Peter Martyr (Swiss Reformer, died 1562) on Judges and Romans occupy a folio each; N. Byfield (Puritan, died 1622) on Colossians fills a folio; Caryl (Independent, died 1673) on Job extends to 2 folios; Durham (died 1658) on Isaiah 53:1-12 consists of 72 sermons; Venema (Holland, died 1787) on Jeremiah fills 2 quartos, and on the Psalms no less than 6 quartos. These are only samples of a large class. H. Hammond's A Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Testament, from an Arminian Standpoint belong to this period (1675). Another work which long took high rank is M. Poole's elaborate Synopsis Criticorum Biblicorum (5 volumes, folio, 1669-76)--a summary of the opinions of 150 Biblical critics; with which must be taken his English Annotations on the Holy Bible, only completed up to Isaiah 58:1-14 at the time of his death (1679). The work was continued by his friends.ISBE Commentaries.55

4. 18th Century: (1) Calmet, M. Henry, etc.ISBE Commentaries.56

The 18th century is marked by greater sobriety in exegesis. It is prolific in commentaries, but only a few attain to high distinction. Calmet (died 1757), a learned Benedictine, on the Roman Catholic side, produced his Commentaire litteral sur tous les livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament, in 23 quarto volumes--a work of immense erudition, though now necessarily superseded in its information. On the Protestant side, Matthew Henry's celebrated Exposition of the Old and New Testament (1708-10) easily holds the first place among devotional commentaries for its blending of good sense, quaintness, original and felicitous remark, and genuine insight into the meaning of the sacred writers. It is, of course, not a critical work in the modern acceptation, and often is unduly diffuse. M. Henry's work extends only to the end of Acts; the remaining books were done by various writers after his death (1714). Le Clerc (died 1736) may be named as precursor of the critical views now obtaining on the composition and authorship of the Pentateuch His commentaries began with Gen in 1693 and were not Completed till 1731. Other commentators of note of Arminian views were Daniel Whitby (died 1726; converted to Arianism), and, later, Adam Clarke, Wesleyan (1762-1832), whose work extends into the next century. Clarke's Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (1810-26), still held by many in high esteem, is marred to some extent by eccentricities of opinion.ISBE Commentaries.57

(2) Patrick, Lowth, Scott. In the Anglican church the names of chief distinction in this century are Bishop Patrick, Bishop Lowth, and later, Thomas Scott. Bishop Patrick, usually classed with the Cambridge Platonists (died 1707), contributed paraphrases and commentaries on the Old Testament from Genesis to Canticles, while Bishop Lowth (died 1787) acquired lasting fame by his Prelections on Hebrew Poetry, and A New Translation, with Notes on Isaiah. He was among the first to treat the poetical and prophetic writings really as literature. The commentaries of Patrick and Lowth were subsequently combined with those of Whitby and other divines (Arnold, etc.) to form a complete Critical Commentary (1809), which went through many editions. The well-known commentary of Thomas Scott (1747-1821), representing a moderate Calvinism, is a solid and "judicious" piece of work, inspired by an earnest, believing spirit, though not presenting any marked originality or brilliance. Brilliance is not the characteristic of many commentators of this age.ISBE Commentaries.58

(3) Gill, Doddridge. Two other English writers deserving notice are Dr. John Gill (died 1771; Calvinistic Baptist), who wrote Expositions on the Old Testament and the New Testament and a separate Exposition of the Song of Solomon--learned, but ponderous and controversial; and Dr. Philip Doddridge (died 1751), whose Family Expositor, embracing the entire New Testament, with a harmony of the Gospels, and paraphrases of the meaning, is marked by excellent judgment, and obtainea wide acceptance.ISBE Commentaries.59

(4) Bengel. Meanwhile a new period had been preluded in Germany by the appearance in 1742 of the Gnomon Novi Testamenti of J. A. Bengel (died 1751), a work following upon his critical edition of the New Testament issued in 1734. Though belonging to the 18th century, Bengel's critical and expository labors really herald and anticipate the best work in these departments of the 19th century His scholarship was exact, his judgment sound, his critical skill remarkable in a field in which he was a pioneer; his notes on the text, though brief, were pregnant with significance, and were informed by a spirit of warm and living piety.ISBE Commentaries.60

The modern period, to which Bengel in spirit, if not in date, belongs, is marked by great changes in the style and character of commentaries. The critical temper was now strong; great advances had been made in the textual criticism of both Old Testament and New Testament (see TEXTUAL CRITICISM ); the work of the higher criticism had begun in the Old Testament; in Germany, the spirit of humanism, inherited from Lessing, Herder and Goethe, had found its way into literature; knowledge of the sciences, of oriental civilizations, of other peoples and religions, was constantly on the increase; scholarship was more precise and thorough; a higher ideal of what commentary meant had taken possession of the mind.ISBE Commentaries.61

5. The Modern Period--Its Characteristics: Learning, too, had enlarged its borders, and books on all subjects poured from the press in such numbers that it was difficult to cope with them. This applies to commentaries as to other departments of theological study. Commentaries in the 19th century, and in our own, are legion. Only the most prominent landmarks can be noted.ISBE Commentaries.62

(1) GermanyISBE Commentaries.63

(a) The liberal school. In Germany, as was to be anticipated, the rise of the critical spirit and the profound influence exercised by it are reflected in most of the commentaries produced in the first half of the century. On the liberal side, the rationalistic temper is shown in the rejection of miracle, the denial of prediction in prophecy, and the lowering of the idea of inspiration generally. The scholarship, however, is frequently of a very high order. This temper is seen in De Wette (died 1849), whose commentaries on the New Testament, written when his views had become more positive, show grace and feeling; in Gesenius (died 1842), who produced an epoch-making commentary on Isaiah; in Knobel (died 1863), pronouncedly rationalistic, but with keen critical sense, as evinced in his commentaries on the Pentateuch and Joshua, Ecclesiastes, and Isaiah; in Hupfeld (died 1866) in his Commentary on the Psalms (4 volumes); in Hitzig (died 1875), acute but arbitrary, who wrote on the Psalms and most of the Prophets; above all, in Ewald (died 1875), a master in the interpretation of the poetical and prophetical books, but who commented also on the first three Gospels, on the writings of John, and on Paul's epistles. Ewald's influence is felt in the History of the Jewish Church by Dean Stanley, in England. The Exegetical Handbook (Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch) embraced compendious annotations by Knobel, Hitzig, Bertbeau (school of Ewald), etc., but also Olshausen (died 1839; wrote likewise on the New Testament), on all the books of the Old Testament.ISBE Commentaries.64

(b) Believing tendency. On the believing side, from a variety of standpoints, evangelical, critical, mediating, confessional, a multitude of commentaries on the Old Testament and New Testament were produced.ISBE Commentaries.65

(i) Conservative: The extremely conservative position in criticism was defended by Hengstenberg (died, 1869; on Psalms, Ecclesiastes, Ezekiel, John, Revelation), by Keil (died 1888) in the well-known Keil and Delitzsch series (Genesis to Esther, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Minor Prophets; also New Testament commentaries), and by Havernick (died 1845; Daniel, Ezekiel). Delitzsch (died 1890) wrote valued commentaries on Genesis, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah; also on Hebrews.ISBE Commentaries.66

(ii) Critical:ISBE Commentaries.67

After the rise of the Wellhausen school, he considerably modified his views in the newer critical direction. His New Commentary on Genesis (1887) shows this change, but, with his other works, is still written in a strongly believing spirit. On the other hand, the critical position (older, not newer) is frankly represented by A. Dillmann (died 1894) in his commentaries on the books of the Pentateuch and Joshua (English translation of Genesis, 1897; many also of the above works are translated).ISBE Commentaries.68

(iii) Mediating:ISBE Commentaries.69

The mediating school, largely penetrated by the influence of Schleiermacher, had many distinguished representatives. Among the most conspicuous may be named Lucke (died 1855), who wrote on John; Bleek, the Old Testament and New Testament critical scholar (died 1859), who has a work on the first three Gospels, and lectures on Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, Hebrews and Revelation (his Commentary on Hebrews is the best known), and Tholuck (died 1877), whose expositions and commentaries on Psalms, John, Romans and Hebrews with his Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount, are fine pieces of exegetical work.ISBE Commentaries.70

A special place must be given to two names of high distinction in the present connection. One is J. P. Lange (died 1884), the projector and editor of the great Bibelwerk (theological and homiletical) in 22 volumes, to which he himself contributed the commentaries on Genesis to Numbers, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Matthew, Mark, John, Romans, Revelation, with introductions and homiletic hints. The other is H. A. W. Meyer (died 1873), whose Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament from Matthew to Philippians (the remaining books being done by other scholars, Lunemann, Huther, etc.) is an essential part of every New Testament scholar's equipment.ISBE Commentaries.71

(iv) Confessional:ISBE Commentaries.72

With the more positive and confessional theologians may be ranked E. R. Stier (died 1862). whose Words of the Lord Jesus (English translation in 8 volumes; Biblical, mystical, tendency to prolixity), with commentaries on 70 selected Psalms, Proverbs, 2nd Isaiah, Ephesians, Hebrews, James and Jude, found much acceptance. A. von Harless (died 1879) wrote a Commentary on Ephesians, praised by Tholuck as one of the finest extant. Philippi (died 1882), of Jewish extraction, best known by his Commentary on Romans, was strictly Lutheran. One of the ablest of the Lutheran Confessionalists was Luthardt (died 1892), whose works include a Commentary on John's Gospel. Ebrard (died 1887), as stoutly confessional on the Reformed side, has an esteemed Commentary on Hebrews.ISBE Commentaries.73

(v) Godet (Swiss): An eminent continental theologian who cannot be overlooked is the Swiss F. L. Godet (died 1900), whose admirable Commentary on John's Gospel, and commentaries on Romans and Corinthians are highly appreciated.ISBE Commentaries.74

(2) Britain and America. Meanwhile the English speaking countries were pursuing their own paths in the production of commentaries, either in continuing their old traditions, or in striking out on new lines, under the foreign influences which, from the beginning of the century, had begun to play upon them. In England Bishop Blomfield (died 1857) published Lectures on John and Acts. In the United States there appeared from the pen of Dr. J. A. Alexander, of Princeton (died 1860), a noteworthy Commentary on Isaiah, fully abreast of the modern learning, but staunchly censervative; also a Commentary on Psalms. From the same seminary proceeded the massive commentaries of Dr. Charles Hodge (Calvinistic) on Romans, Ephesians and Corinthians. Adapted for popular use and greatly in demand for Sunday-school purposes were the Notes, Critical, Explanatory and Practical of Albert Barnes (died 1871; New School Presbyterian). These Notes, the fruit of the use of the early morning hours in a busy pastoral life, covered the whole of the New Testament, with several books of the Old Testament (Job, Psalms, Isaiah, Daniel). Sensible and informative, rather than original or profound, they proved helpful to many. Over 1,000,000 copies are stated to have been sold. Of similar aim, though less widely known, were the Notes of Professor M. W. Jacobus (died 1876; on the New Testament, Genesis and Exodus).ISBE Commentaries.75

(i) Alford, Eadie: A new era was opened in critical commentary in England by the publication of the Greek Testament (1849-61) of Dean Alford (died 1871), followed by his New Testament for English Readers (1868). Here was presented a thoroughly critical treatment of the texts, with a full display of the critical apparatus, and notes philological and exegetical, accompanied by learned and lucid introductions, on all the books of the New Testament. About the same time appeared the solid, if more theological and homiletical, commentaries of the Scottish scholar, J. Eadie (died 1876), on Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians.ISBE Commentaries.76

(ii) Ellicott and Lighfoot:ISBE Commentaries.77

Anglican scholarship produced its ripest fruits in this line in the classical Critical and Grammatical Commentary of Bishop Ellicott (died 1905) on Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, Thessalonians, Pastoral Epistles, and the yet more remarkable series of commentaries of Bishop J. B. Lightfoot (died 1889), massive in learning, and wider in outlook than Ellicott's, on Galatians, Philemon, Colossians and Philemon. A large part of the value of Lightfoot's works consists in the special essays or dissertations on important subjects embodied in them (e.g. "St. Paul and the Three", "The Christian Ministry," "The Colossian Heresy," etc.).ISBE Commentaries.78

(iii) Westcott:ISBE Commentaries.79

With these names should be associated that of Bishop Westcott, Dr. Lightfoot's successor in the see of Durham (died 1901), whose commentaries on the Gospel and Epistles of John, and on He, take a place among the foremost. Bishop Moule, who, in turn, succeeded Dr. Westcott; has also written commentaries, simpler in character, on Romans, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians, in the Cambridge Bible Series, and on Romans in the Expositor's Bible. In Old Testament exposition mention should be made of Bishop Perowne's valuable work on the Book of Psalms (2nd edition, revised, 1870), with his contributions to the Cambridge Bible (see below).ISBE Commentaries.80

(iv) Critical Influences--Broad ChurchISBE Commentaries.81

Stanley and Jowett:ISBE Commentaries.82

The critical and theological liberalism of Germany has made its influence felt in England in the rise of a Broad Church party, the best products of which in commentary were Dean Stanley's (died 1881) graphic and interesting Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (1855) and Dr. B. Jowett's Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Romans, with Critical Notes and Dissertations (1855). The new spirit culminated in the appearance of the famous Essays and Reviews (1860), and in the works of Bishop Colenso on the Pentateuch and Joshua (1862-79). Bishop Colenso had already published a translation of Romans, with commentary (1861).ISBE Commentaries.83

(v) General Commentaries (Series): Besides works by individual authors, there appeared during this period several general commentaries, to the production of which many writers contributed. The following may be mentioned. The Speaker's Commentary (10 volumes, 1871-82), under the general editorship of Canon F. C. Cook (died 1889), was called forth by the agitation over Bishop Colenso. Dr. Cook himself wrote introductions to Exodus, Psalms and Acts, and contributed the entire commentaries on Job, Habakkuk, Mark, Luke, 1 Peter, with parts of commentaries on Exodus, Psalms and Matthew. The work is of unequal value. A serviceable series is the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges (1877 ff), edited by Bishop Perowne, with Smaller Cambridge Bible for Schools, and Cambridge Greek Testament for Schools and Colleges (still in process). Dr. Perowne (died 1904) himself contributed to the first-named the commentaries on Obadiah, Jonah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Galatians. Many valuable contributions appear in this series, e.g. A. F. Kirkpatrick on 1 and 2 Samuel and Psalms, A. B. Davidson on Job and Ezekiel, Driver on Daniel, G. G. Findlay on Thessalonians, etc. Next, under the editorship of Bishop Ellicott, were produced (1877-84) A New Testament Commentary for English Readers (3 volumes), and An Old Testament Commentary for English Readers (5 volumes), which contained some valuable work (Genesis by R. Payne Smith, Exodus by Canon G. Rawlinson, etc.). Akin to this in character was the Popular Commentary on the New Testament (4 volumes, 1879-83), edited by Dr. W. Schaff. This embraced, with other excellent matter, commentaries on Thessalonians by Dr. Marcus Dods, and on 1 and 2 Peter by Dr. S. D. F. Salmond. The Pulpit Commentary (49 volumes, 1880 ff), edited by J. S. Exell and Canon H. D. M. Spence, has expositions by good scholars, and an abundance of homiletical material by a great variety of authors. The series of Handbooks for Bible Classes (T. and T. Clark, Edinburgh) has a number of valuable commentaries, e.g. that of Dr. A. B. Davidson on He.ISBE Commentaries.84

6. Recent Period: In the most recent period the conspicuous feature has been the production of commentaries in series or by individual writers embodying the results of an advanced Old Testament criticism--in less degree of a radical New Testament criticism.ISBE Commentaries.85

(1) Germany. In Germany, in addition to the Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch, of older standing (see above), to which Dillmann contributed, may be mentioned Marti's Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Altes Testament (1897 ff) and Nowack's Handkommentar zum Altes Testament; also Strack-and Zockler's Kurzgefasster Kommentar (Old Testament and New Testament; critical, but moderate). Marti contributes to his Hand-Commentar the volumes on Isaiah, Daniel and the Minor Prophets; Nowack contributes to his Handkommentar the volumes on Judges and Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel and the Minor Prophets (of special importance in Nowack's series are the volumes on Genesis by H. Gunkel, and on Deuteronomy and Joshua by C. Steuernagel); Strack writes in his own work the volumes on Genesis to Numbers (Oettli contributes Deuteronomy, Joshua and Judges). Much more conservative in spirit are the commentaries of H.C. von Orelli (Basel) on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets. In the New Testament, Meyer's Commentary has been "revised" by later writers, many of them (J. Weiss, W. Bousset, etc.) of much more advanced tendency than the original author.ISBE Commentaries.86

(2) Britain and America. In Britain and America like currents are observable. Professor T.K. Cheyne, who wrote a helpful commentary on the Prophecies of Isa (1880-81), and subsequently commentaries on Micah and Hosea (Cambridge Bible), Jeremiah (Pulpit Commentary), and on The Book of Psalms (1884), has become more and more extreme in his opinions. Of works in series the most important is The International Critical Commentary, edited by Drs. Driver and Plummer in England, and Dr. C. A. Briggs in the United States, of which 16 volumes in the Old Testament and the New Testament have already appeared. It need not be said that the commentaries in this series are always scholarly and able; those on the Old Testament are, however, all built on the Wellhausen foundations (see CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE. III). Dr. Driver himself writes on Deuteronomy; Dr. J. Skinner, on Genesis; Dr. G. F. Moore, on Judges; Dr. H. P. Smith, on 1 and 2 Samuel; Dr. Briggs, on Psalms; Dr. Toy, on Proverbs; Dr. W. R. Harper (died 1906), on Amos and Hosea; while Matthew in the New Testament is covered by W. C. Allen, Luke by Dr. Plummer, Romans by Drs. Sanday and Headlam, etc. A similar series is the Westminister Commentary, recently commenced, to which Dr. Driver contributes the volume on Genesis (1904; 7th edition, 1909). Yet another recent popular series is The Century Bible, to which again leading critical scholars lend their aid (Dr. W. H. Bennett on Genesis; also on "General Epistles"; Dr. A. R. S. Kennedy on 1 and 2 Samuel; Dr. Skinner on 1 and 2 Kings; Dr. A. S. Peake on Job; also on Hebrews; Dr. Driver on a group of the Minor Prophets, etc.). A well-planned one-vol Commentary on the Holy Bible, by various writers, has recently been edited by J. R. Dummelow (Cambridge). It is prefaced by a general Introduction, with a large number of articles on the principal subjects with which a reader of the Bible will desire to be acquainted.ISBE Commentaries.87

It need only be added that very many of the foreign works mentioned above (not simply those specially noted) are now accessible in English translations.ISBE Commentaries.88

LITERATURE.ISBE Commentaries.89

Works and articles specially devoted to commentaries are not numerous. Dr. S. Davidson has an article "Commentary" in Kitto's Biblical Encyclopedia, Vol I. See also F. W. Farrar's Hist of Interpretation (Bampton Lects for 1885). G. H. Spurgeon's popular talks on Commenting and Commentaries are accompanied by extensive lists of Commentaries on all parts of the Bible (severely exclusive of works deemed dangerous). Lists of commentaries on the Bible as a whole, on the Old Testament and New Testament separately, and on the several books, may be seen in most good works on Introduction, or in prolegomena to commentaries on the different books; e.g. in the general Introduction prefixed to Lange's Commentary on Genesis; also in the lengthy sections on Jewish, Greek, Latin and Protestant commentators, and again in the "Index of the More Important Expository Works on the Books of the Old Testament." In Bleek's Introduction to the Old Testament, very full information is given up to the author's date. Full bibliographies of modern books, including commentaries on the Old Testament, are furnished in Dr. Driver's Introduction. Similar lists are given in other works regarding the New Testament. For the writers of the commentaries on the special books in the above-noted German and English series, lists may generally be seen attached to each volume of the series.ISBE Commentaries.90

James OrrISBE Commentaries.91

Commentaries, Hebrew

Commentaries, Hebrew - he'-broo:ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.2

1. Philo JudaeusISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.3

2. TargumISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.4

3. MidrashISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.5

4. TalmudISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.6

5. KaraitesISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.7

6. Middle AgesISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.8

(1) Saadia ben JosephISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.9

(2) RashiISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.10

(3) Joseph KaraISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.11

(4) Abraham ibn EzraISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.12

(5) QimchisISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.13

(6) MaimonidesISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.14

(7) MaimunistsISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.15

(8) KabbalistsISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.16

(9) The "Zohar"ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.17

(10) Isaac AramaISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.18

7. Modern TimesISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.19

AbarbanelISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.20

8. The Bi'uristsISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.21

(1) MendelssohnISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.22

(2) Zunz, etc.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.23

(3) Malbim, Ehrlich, etc.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.24

(4) Halevy, Hoffmann, MuellerISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.25

(5) Geiger, Graetz, KohlerISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.26

LITERATUREISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.27

The following outline alludes to the leading Jewish commentators and their works in chronological order. However widely the principles which guided the various Jewish schools of exegesis, or the individual commentatom, differ from those of the modern school, the latter will find a certain suggestiveness in the former's interpretation which well merits attention.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.28

1. Philo Judaeus: Philo Judaeus: A Hellenistic Jew of Alexandria, Egypt. Born about 20 BC; died after 40 AD. By his allegorical method of exegesis (a method he learned from the Stoics), Philo exercised a far-reaching influence not only on Jewish thought, but even more so on the Christian church. We have but to mention his influence on Origen and other Alexandrian Christian writers. His purpose in employing his allegorical method was, mainly, to reconcile Greek philosophy with the Old Testament.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.29

See PHILO,JUDAEUS .ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.30

Josephus cannot be called a Bible commentator in the proper sense of the term.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.31

See JOSEPHUS.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.32

2. Targum: Targum (plural Targumim): The Aramaic translation of the Old Testament. Literally, the word designates a translation in general; its use, however, has been restricted to the Aramaic version of the Old Testament, as contrasted with the Hebrew text which was called miqra'. The Targum includes all the books of the Old Testament except Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah, which are written in part in Aramaic. Its inception dates back to the time of the Second Temple, and it is considered a first approach to a commentary before the time of Jesus. For the Targum is not a mere translation, but rather a combination of a translation with a commentary, resulting in a paraphrase, or an interpretative translation--having its origin in exegesis. The language of this paraphrase is the vernacular tongue of Syria, which began to reassert itself throughout Palestine as the language of common intercourse and trade, as soon as a familiar knowledge of the Hebrew tongue came to be lost. The Targumim are:ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.33

TO THE PENTATEUCHISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.34

(1) Targum Onkelos or Babylonian Targum (the accepted and official);ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.35

(2) Targum yerushalmi or Palestinian Targum ("Pseudo-Jonathan"; aside from this (complete) Targum there are fragments of the Palestinian Targum termed "Fragment Targrim").ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.36

TO THE PROPHETSISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.37

(1) Targrim Jonathan ben Uzziel (being the official one; originated in Palestine and was then adapted to the vernacular of Babylonia);ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.38

(2) A Palestinian Targrim, called Targum yerushalmi (Palestinian in origin; edition Lagarde, "Prophetae Chaldaice").ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.39

Other Targumim (not officially recognized): (1) To the Psalms and Job; (2) to Proverbs; (3) to the Five Rolls; (4) to Chronicles--all Palestinian.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.40

See TARGUM.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.41

3. Midrash: Midhrash: Apparently the practice of commenting upon and explaining the meaning of the Scriptures originated in the synagogues (in the time of Ezra), from the necessity of an exposition of the Law to a congregation many of whom did not or might not understand the language in which it was read. Such commentaries, however, were oral and extempore; they were not until much later crystallized into a definite form. When they assumed a definite and, still later, written shape, the name Midhrash (meaning "investigation," "interpretation," from darash, "to investigate" a scriptural passage) was given. The word occurs in 2 Chronicles 13:22 where the Revised Version (British and American) translates "commentary." From this fact some have drawn the inference that such Midhrashim were recognized and extant before the time of the Chronicler. They are: Midhrash Rabba' on the Pentateuch and the Five Rolls (the one on Gen occupies a first position among the various exegetical Midhrashim, both on account of its age and importance). Next comes the one on Lamentations. (Zunz pointed out that the Midhrash Rabba' consists of ten entirely different Midhrashim.) On the same ten books there is a similar collection, called ha-Midhrash ha-gadhol (the "Great Midrash"), being a collection of quotations from a good many works including the Midhrash Rabba'. Other Midhrashim are: The Midhrash Tanchuma' on the Pentateuch; the Mekhilta' on Exodus (this has been (Leipzig, 1909) translated into German by Winter and Wuensche; the latter also published, under the main title Bibliotheca Rabbinica, a collection of the old Midhrashim in a German translation with introductions and notes). Further, Ciphra' on Leviticus; Ciphre on Numbers and Dr; peciqta', which comments on sections taken from the entire range of Scriptures for various festivals. There are also extant separate Midhrashim on the Psalms, Proverbs, etc.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.42

In this connection we have yet to mention the YalquT Shim`oni, a haggadic compilation attributed to the 11th or, according to Zunz, the 13th century. The YalquT extends over the whole of the Old Testament and is arranged according to the sequence of those portions of the Bible to which reference is made. Further, the YalquT ha-Maqiri, a work similar in contents to the YalquT Shim`oni, edition Greenup.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.43

See COMMENTARIES; MIDRASH.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.44

4 Talmud:ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.45

Talmud (Talmudh): This term is used here to designate the entire body of literature exclusive of the Midhrash. Ample exegetical material abounds in the Talmud as it does in the Midhrashim. The critical notes on the Bible by some Talmudists are very characteristic of their intellectual temper. Some of them were extremely radical, and expressed freely their opinions on important problems of Bible criticism, such as on the integrity of the text, on doubtful authorship, etc. An Amora' of the 3rd century AD held the opinion that the story of Job is purely fictitious, both as to the name of the hero and as to his fate. The Talmudists also generalized, and set up critical canons. The "Baraitha', of the Thirty-two Rules" is the oldest work on Biblical hermeneutics (Philo's hermeneutical rules being rather fantastic), and contains exegetical notices valid to this very day. Hermeneutics, of course, is not exegesis proper, but theory of exegesis; one results from the other, however. This Baraitha' calls attention, for instance, to the fact that words occur in the Old Testament in an abbreviated form--a thing now generally accepted.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.46

See TALMUD.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.47

5. Karaites: Karaites: "Followers of the Bible." They are sometimes referred to as the "Protestants of the Jews," professing to follow the Old Testament to the exclusion of the rabbinical tradition. The founder of this Jewish sect was a Bah Jew in the 8th century, Anan ben David, by name; hence, they were first called Ananites. The principal Karaite commentators of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries are: Benjamin Al-Nahawendi (he was the first to use the term "Karaites," "Ba`ale Miqra'"), Solomon ben Jeroham, Sahl ibn Mazliah, Yusuf al-Basir, Yafith ibn Ali (considered the greatest of this period), and Abu al-Faraij Harum. Of a later date we will mention Aaron ben Joseph and Aaron ben Elijah (14th century).ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.48

The struggle between the Rabbinites and the Karaites undoubtedly gave the impetus to the great exegetical activity among the Jews in Arabic speaking countries during the 10th and 11th centuries. The extant fragments of Saadia's commentary on the Pentateuch (not less than his polemical writings proper) are full of polemics against the Karaite interpretation. And the same circumstance aroused Karaites to like efforts.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.49

6. Middle Ages: Middle Ages: In the old Midhrashim as well as elsewhere the consciousness of a simple meaning of a text was never entirely lost. The principal tendencies in exegesis were four; these were afterward designated by the acrostic "PARDEC": i.e. PeshaT (or the simple philological explanation of words); Remez (or the allegorical); Derash (or the ethicohomiletical); and Codh (or the mystical). Naturally enough this division could never be strictly carried out; hence, variations and combinations are to be found.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.50

(1) Saadia ben Joseph: Saadia ben Joseph (892-942), the severest antagonist of the Karaites, translated the Old Testament into Arabic with notes. The parts published are: Pentateuch, Isa, Prov and Job.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.51

Moses ha-Darshan (the Preacher) of Narbonne, France, and Tobiah ben Eliezer in Castoria, Bulgaria (11th century), are the most prominent representatives of midrashic-symbolic Bible exegesis. The former's work is known only by quotations, and contained Christian theological conceptions; the latter is the author of "Leqach Tobh" or "Peciqta' ZuTarta'" on the Pentateuch and the five Meghilloth.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.52

(2) Rashi: Rashi (Solomon ben Isaac, of Troyes; born 1040, died 1105) wrote a very popular commentary, which extends over the whole of the Old Testament, with the exception of Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and the last part of Job. He strives for the PeshaT, i.e. for a sober, natural and rational interpretation of the Bible. His is still a commentary both for the boy and the man among the Jews. Christian exegetes of the Middle Ages as well as of more modern times made Use of his Bible commentary. Nicolas de Lyra (see COMMENTARIES) followed Rashi closely; and it is a known fact that Luther's translation of the Bible is dependent upon Nicolas de Lyra. Rashi's commentary has called forth numerous supercommentaries.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.53

(3) Joseph Kara: An independent and important exegete was Joseph Kara' (about 1100). He edited and partly completed Rashi's commentary, particularly the part on the PentateuchISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.54

(4) Abraham ibn Ezra: Abraham ibn Ezra's (1092-1168) commentary on the Pentateuch, like Rashi's commentaries, has produced many supercommentaries. His is very scholarly. He was the first to maintain that Isa contains the work of two authors; and his doubts respecting the authenticity of the Pentateuch were noticed by Spinoza.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.55

(5) Qimchis: The grammarians and the lexicographers were not merely exegetical expounders of words, but many of them were likewise authors of actual commentaries. Such were the Qimchis, Joseph (father), Moses and David (his sons); especially the latter. The Qimchis were the most brilliant contributors to Bible exegesis and Hebrew philology (like Ibn Ezra) in medieval times.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.56

(6) Maimonides: Maimonides (1135-1204): Philo employed his allegorical method for the purpose of bringing about a reconciliation of Plato with the Old Testament. Maimonides had something similar in view. To him Aristotle was the representative of natural knowledge and the Bible of supernatural--and he sought for a reconciliation between the two in his religious philosophy. Exegesis proper was the one field, however, to which this great genius made no contribution of first-class importance.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.57

(7) Maimunist: The Maimunist, those exegetes of a philosophical turn, are: Joseph ibn Aknin, Samuel ibn Tibbon, his son Moses, and his son-in-law, Jacob ben Abba Mari Anatolio, whose Malmadh ha-Talmidhim is the most important work of philosophical exegesis of the period.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.58

Joseph ibn Kacpi, chiefly known as a philosopher of the Maimunist type, deserves attention. Ibn Kacpi is an exegete of the first quality. His exposition of Isaiah 53:1-12 might be the work of the most modern scholar. He refers the prophecy to Israel, not to an individual, and in this his theory is far superior to that of some other famous Jewish expositors who interpret the chapter as referring to Hezekiah.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.59

Through the philosophical homily, which began to be used after the death of Maimonides, Aristotle was popularized from the pulpit. The pulpit changed to a chair of philosophy. Aristotle's concepts--as Matter and Form, the Four Causes, Possibility and Reality--were then something ordinary in the sermon, and were very popular.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.60

(8) Kabbalists: The principal commentators with a Kabbalistic tendency are: Nachmanides (1194-1270?) whose great work is his commentary on the Pentateuch; Immanuel of Rome (1270?-1330?) who does, however, not disregard the literal meaning of the Scriptures; Bahya ben Asher (died 1340) who formulated the four methods of exegesis of "PaRDeC." referred to above; he took Nachmanides as his model; many supercommentaries were written on his commentary on the Pentateuch; and Gersonides (1288-1334), a maternal grandson of Nachmanides, who sees symbols in many Biblical passages; on account of some of his heretical ideas expressed in his philosophy, some rabbis forbade the study of his commentaries.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.61

(9) The "Zohar": We must not fail to make mention of the Zohar (the "Bible of the Kabbalists"), the book of all others in the Middle Ages that dominated the thinking and feeling of the Jews for almost 500 years, and which was in favor with many Christian scholars. This work is pseudepigraphic, written partly in Aramaic and partly in Hebrew. It first appeared in Spain in the 131h century, and was made known through Moses de Leon, to whom many historians attribute it.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.62

(10) Isaac Arama: Mention must also be made of Isaac Arama (1430-94), whose 'Aqedhah, his commentary on the Pentateuch (homiletical in style), was the standard book for the Jewish pulpit for centuries, much esteemed by the Christian world, and is still much read by the Jews, especially in Russia and Poland.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.63

7. Modern Times: Abarbanel:ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.64

Isaac Abravanel (or Abarbanel; 1437-1508): A statesman and scholar who came nearest to the modern idea of a Bible commentator by considering not only the literary elements of the Bible but the political and social life of the people as well. He wrote a general introduction to each book of the Bible, setting forth its character; and he was the first to make use of Christian commentaries which he quotes without the least prejudice. Moses Alshech (second half of 16th century) wrote commentaries, all of which are of a homiletical character. In the main the Jewish exegesis of the 16th and 17th centuries branched out into homileties.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.65

We will pass over the critical annotations connected with the various editions of the Hebrew Bible, based upon the comparison of manuscripts, on grammatical and Massoretic studies, ete, such as those of Elijah Levita, Jacob ben Hayyim of Tunis (afterward a convert to Christianity), etc.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.66

8. The "Bi'urists": (1) Mendelssohn: The "Bi'urists" ("Commentators"): A school of exegetes which had its origin with Mendelssohn's (1729-86) literal German translation of the Bible, at a time when Christian Biblical studies of a modern nature had made some progress, and under whose influence the Bi'urists wrote. They are: Dubno, Wessely, Jaroslav, tt. Homberg, J. Euchel, etc. They laid a foundation for a critieo-historical study of the Bible among modern Jews. It bore its fruit in the 19th century in the writings of Philippson, Munk, Fuerst, etc.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.67

(2) Zunz, etc.: The same century produced Zunz's (1794-1886) Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege der Juden, the book of "Jewish science."ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.68

(3) Malbim, Ehrlich, etc.: It also produced three Jewish exegetes, Luzzatto in Italy, Malbim and Ehrlich in Russia (the latter since 1878 residing in New York); he published, in Hebrew a commentary on the Old Testament, entitled Miqra' ki-PeshuTah (Berlin, 1899-1901, 3 volumes), and, in German, Randglossen z. hebr. Bibel, two scholarly works written from the conservative standpoint (Leipzig, 1908-). Malbim was highly esteemed by the Christian commentators Franz Delitzsch and Muehlau, who studied under him.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.69

(4) Halevy, Hoffmann, Mueller: Others are Joseph Halevy, a French Jew, a most original Bible investigator, and D. Hoffmann (the last two named are adversaries of "higher criticism") and D. H. Mueller. M. Heilprin wrote a collection of Bibelkritische Notizen (Baltimore, 1893), containing comparisons of various passages of the Bible, and The Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews (N.Y., 1879-80, 2 volumes), and the American rabbi B, Szold, a Commentary on Job (Baltimore, 1886), written in classic Hebrew, and with accurate scholarship and in which full account is taken of the work of the Massorites. A new Hebrew commentary on the whole of the Old Testament has been since 1903 in progress under the editorship of A. Kahana. This is the first attempt since Mendelssohn's Bi'ur to approach the Bible from the Jewish side with the latest philological and archaeological equipment. Among the authors are Kahana on Genesis and Jonah, Krauss on Isaiah, Chajes on Psalms and Amos, Wynkoop on Hosea and Joel, and Lambert on Daniel. This attempt well deserves attention and commendation.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.70

There is still to be mentioned the work of M. M. Kalisch (1828-85), whose special object was to write a full and critical commentary on the Old Testament. Of his Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament, with a New Tr, only the following parts were published: Exodus, 1855; Genesis, 1858; Leviticus (pts 1-2), 1867-72. They contain a resume of all that Jewish and Christian learning had accumulated on the subject up to the dates of their publication. In his Lev he anticipated Wellhausen to a large extent.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.71

(5) Geiger, Graetz, Kohler: We conclude with some names of the liberals: Geiger (whose Urschrift is extremely radical), Graetz, the great Jewish historian, and Kohler (president of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, O.) whose Der Segen Jacobs is one of the earliest essays of "higher criticism" written by a Jew.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.72

LITERATURE.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.73

Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, London. 1857; Zunz. Gottesdienstlichen Vortraege der Juden, 2nd edition, Frankfurt a. M., 1892; Jew Encyclopedia (articles by Bacher and Ginzberg); Catholic Encyclopedia (article "Commentaries"); Rosenau, Jewish Biblical Commentators, Baltimore, 1906 (popular); Winter-Wuensche, Geschichte der Juedischen Literatur, Leipzig. 1892-95, 3 volumes (the best existing anthology of Jewish literature in a modern language; it contains very valuable introductions); Wogue, Histoire de la Bible et l'exegese biblique jusqu' a nos jours. Paris, 1881.ISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.74

Adolph S. OkoISBE Commentaries, Hebrew.75

Commentary

Commentary - kom'-en-ta-ri (midhrash, "an investigation," from darash, "to search," "inquire," "explore"; the King James Version "story"): "The commentary of the prophet Iddo" (2 Chronicles 13:22), "the commentary of the book of the kings" (2 Chronicles 24:27). In these passages the word is not used exactly in its modern sense. The Hebrew term means "an imaginative development of a thought or theme suggested by Scripture, especially a didactic or homiletic exposition, or an edifying religious story" (Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 5, 497). In the commentaries (Midhrashim) mentioned by the Chronicler as among his sources, the story of Abijah's reign was presumably related and elaborated with a view to moral instruction rather than historic accuracy.ISBE Commentary.2

See CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF; COMMENTARIES, HEBREW.ISBE Commentary.3

M. O. EvansISBE Commentary.4

Commerce

Commerce - kom'-ers (emporia):ISBE Commerce.2

I. Old Testament Times. 1. Early Overland Commerce: There were forces in early Hebrew life not favorable to the development of commerce. Intercourse with foreigners was not encouraged by Israel's social and religious customs. From the days of the appearance of the Hebrews in Canaan, however, some commercial contact with the peoples around was inevitable. There were ancient trade routes between the East and the West, as well as between Egypt and the Mesopotamian valley. Palestine lay as a bridge between these objective points. There were doubtless traveling merchants from very remote times, interchanging commodities of other lands for those of Palestine Some of the Hebrew words for "trading" and "merchant" indicate this (compare cachar, "to travel," rakhal, "to go about"). In the nomadic period, the people were necessarily dependent upon overland commerce for at least a part of their food supply, such as grain, and doubtless for articles of clothing, too. Frequent local famines would stimulate such trade. Companies or caravans carrying on this overland commerce are seen in Genesis 37:25, 28, "Ishmaelites" and "Midianites, merchantmen," on their way to Egypt, with spices, balm and myrrh. Jacob caused his sons to take certain products to Egypt as a present with money to Joseph in return for grain: balsam, spices, honey, myrrh, nuts, almonds (Genesis 43:11 f). The presence of a "Bab mantle" among the spoils of Ai (Joshua 7:21) indicates commerce between Canaan and the East.ISBE Commerce.3

2. Sea Traffic: While there are slight indications of a possible sea trade as early as the days of the Judges (Judges 5:17; compare Genesis 49:13), we must wait till the days of the monarchy of David and especially Solomon for the commerce of ships. Land traffic was of course continued and expanded (1 Kings 10:15, 28-29; 2 Chronicles 1:16). Sea trade at this time made large strides forward. The Philistines were earlier in possession of the coast. Friendship with Hiram king of Tyre gave Solomon additional advantages seaward (1 Kings 5:1-18; 9:26; 1 Kings 10:19-29; 2 Chronicles 8:17; 9:14), since the Phonicians were pre-eminently the Miditerranean traders among all the people of Palestine Later, commerce declined, but Jehoshaphat attempted to revive it (1 Kings 22:48; 2 Chronicles 20:36), but without success. Tyre and Sidon as great commercial centers, however, long impressed the life of Israel (Isaiah 23:1-18; Ezekiel 26:1-21 through 27). Later, in the Maccabean period, Simon acquired Joppa as a Jewish port (1 Maccabees 14:5), and so extended Mediterranean commerce.ISBE Commerce.4

3. Land Traffic in the Time of the Kings: During the peaceful reign of Solomon, there came, with internal improvements and foreign friendships, a stimulus to traffic with Egypt and the Far East over the ancient trade routes as well as with Phoenicia on the northwest. He greatly added to his wealth through tariffs levied upon merchantmen (1 Kings 10:15). Trade with Syria in the days of Omri and Ahab is indicated by the permission Benhadad gave to Israelites to open streets, or trading quarters, in Damascus, as Syrians had in Samaria (1 Kings 20:34). The prophets disclose repeatedly the results of foreign commerce upon the people in the days of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, and of Jeroboam II, under whom great material prosperity was attained, followed by simple luxury (Isaiah 2:6-7, 16; Hosea 12:1, 7-8; Amos 6:3-6). The people in their greed of gain could not observe Sabbaths and feast days (Amos 8:5); compare Sabbath trading and its punishment in the days of the restoration (Nehemiah 13:15-22). "Canaanite" became the nickname for traffickers (Zechariah 14:21; compare Isaiah 23:8).ISBE Commerce.5

II. New Testament Times. After the conquests of Alexander 333 BC, trade between East and West was greatly stimulated. Colonies of Jews for trade purposes had been established in Egypt and elsewhere. The dispersion of the Jews throughout the Greek and Roman world added to their interest in commerce. The Mediterranean Sea, as a great Roman lake, under Roman protection, became alive with commercial fleets. The Sea of Galilee with its enormous fish industry became the center of a large trading interest to all parts. The toll collected in Galilee must have been considerable. Matthew was called from his collectorship to discipleship (Matthew 9:9); Zaccheus and other publicans became rich collecting taxes from large commercial interests like that of balsam. Jesus frequently used the commerce of the day as illustration (Matthew 13:45; Matthew 25:14-30). Along the Palestinian coast there were several ports where ships touched: Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea; and further north Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon and Antioch (port Seleucia).ISBE Commerce.6

The apostle Paul made use of ships touching at points on the coast of Asia Minor, and the islands along the coast, and also doing coast trade with Greece, Italy and Spain, to carry on his missionary emterprises (Acts 13:4-13; 16:11 f; Acts 18:18; Acts 20:13-16; Acts 21:1-8; Acts 27:1-44; Acts 28:1-14). The rapidity with which the gospel spread throughout the Roman world in the 1st century was due no little to the use of the great Roman highways, built partly as trade routes; as well as to the constant going to and fro of tradesmen of all sorts; some of whom like Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2, 18, 26), Lydia, (Acts 16:14, 40) and Paul himself (who was a traveling tent-maker) were active in disseminating the new faith among the Gentiles. In James 4:13 we have a good representation of the life of a large number of Jews of this period, who would "go into such a city, and continue there a year, and buy and sell, and get gain" (the King James Version).ISBE Commerce.7

See also TRADE.ISBE Commerce.8

Edward Bagby PollardISBE Commerce.9

Commit

Commit - ko-mit': Used in two senses:ISBE Commit.2

(1) "To give in charge" or "entrust": sim, "to put" (Job 5:8); galal, "to roll" (Psalms 37:5; Proverbs 16:3); paqadh, "to give, in charge" (Psalms 31:5 the King James Version; compare Luke 23:46); tithemi, "committed to us (the Revised Version, margin "placed in us") the word of reconciliation" (2 Corinthians 5:19); paratheke, "that which I have committed unto him" (2 Timothy 1:12; the Revised Version, margin "that which he hath committed unto me," Greek "my deposit"); "that which is committed unto thee" (1 Timothy 6:20, Greek "the deposit"); "that good thing," etc. (2 Timothy 1:14, Greek "the good deposit").ISBE Commit.3

(2) "To do or practice (evil)": prasso "commit such things" (Romans 1:32, the Revised Version (British and American) "practice"; compare Romans 2:2). In 1 John 3:4, 8 "doeth sin" (poieo, the King James Version "committeth sin") shows that it is not committing a single sin that is in view, but sinful practice.ISBE Commit.4

W. L. WalkerISBE Commit.5

Commodious

Commodious - ko-mo'-di-us (aneuthetos, "not well placed"): The word occurs only in Acts 27:12. "As regards wintering, the place was certainly `not commodious,' but as regards shelter from some winds (including Northwest), it was a good anchorage" (Code of Hammurabi, XXIII, 639).ISBE Commodious.2

Common

Common - kom'-un: koinos, in the classics, and primarily in the New Testament, means what is public, general, universal, as contrasted with idios, what is peculiar, individual, not shared with others. Thus, "common faith" (Titus 1:4), "common salvation" (Jude 1:3), refer to that in which the experience of all Christians unites and is identical: "common," because there is but one faith and one salvation (Ephesians 4:4-6). From this comes the derived meaning of what is ordinary and, therefore, to be disesteemed, as contrasted with what pertains to a class, and to be prized, because rare. This naturally coincides with Old Testament exclusivism, particularity and separation. Its religion was that of a separated people, with a separated class as its ministers, and with minute directions as to distinctions of meat, drink, times, places, rites, vessels, etc. Whatever was common or ordinary, it avoided. The New Testament, on the other hand, with its universalism of scope, and its spirituality of sphere, rose above all such externals. The salvation which it brought was directed to the redemption of Nature, as well as of man, sanctifying the creature, and pervading all parts of man's being and all relations of life. The antithesis is forcibly illustrated in Acts 10:14 f, where Peter says: "I have never eaten anything that is common and unclean," and the reply is: "What God hath cleansed, make not thou common."ISBE Common.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Common.3

Commonwealth

Commonwealth - kom'-un-welth (politeia): Spoken of theocracy (Ephesians 2:12). The same word is rendered "freedom," the King James Version; "citizenship" the Revised Version (British and American). Also in the sense of commonwealth in the Apocrypha (2 Maccabees 4:11; 8:17; 13:14); in the sense of citizenship (3 Maccabees 3:21, 23).ISBE Commonwealth.2

See CITIZENSHIP.ISBE Commonwealth.3

Commune; Communicate; Communication

Commune; Communicate; Communication - ko-mun', komun'-i-kat, ko-mu-ni-ka'-shun: To commune is to converse confidentially and sympathetically. It is represented in both Hebrew and Greek by several words literally signifying to speak (compare Luke 6:11, dialaleo; also Luke 22:4; Acts 24:26, homileo). To communicate is to impart something to another, so that it becomes common to giver and receiver. In 1 Timothy 6:18, "willing to communicate" (the Revised Version, margin "sympathize"), represents a single word koinonikoi, and refers to the habit of sharing with others either sympathy or property. the Revised Version (British and American) gives "companionships" for homiliai in 1 Corinthians 15:33 (the King James Version "communications").ISBE Commune; Communicate; Communication.2

See also COMMUNION.ISBE Commune; Communicate; Communication.3

Communion With Demons; Devils

Communion With Demons; Devils - de'-monz, (dev'-'-lz):ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.2

I. Use of Term: The actual expression "communion with demons" (koinonoi ton daimonion) occurs but once in Scripture (1 Corinthians 10:20) where its figurative meaning is evident, but it is implied in the English version of a number of passages by the terms "one who has" or "those who have" "familiar spirits" (Leviticus 19:31; 6, 27; Deuteronomy 18:11; 1 Samuel 28:3, 7-8, 9; 2 Kings 21:6; 23:24; 1 Chronicles 10:13; 2 Chronicles 33:6; Isaiah 8:19; 19:3; 29:4). These passages seem to be somewhat incongruous with Paul's statement, but are in reality so intimately related to it as to give and receive light through the connection.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.3

II. Teaching of Scripture. To begin with, we may safely say, in general, that there is no ground for asserting that the Bible admits the possibility of conscious and voluntary communion with spirits. This is an essential element of popular demonology in all ages, but it is absent from Scripture. Even in the passages mentioned above which refer to necromancers and wizards, while, as we shall see, the words indicate that such practitioners professed to rely upon spirits in their divinations, the Scriptures carefully refrain from sanctioning these claims, and a number of features in the various passages serve to indicate that the true scriptural view is quite the opposite. As this is not a prevalent opinion, we should do well to examine the passages with some little care.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.4

1. The New Testament: (1) We may first deal with the New Testament. In the Gospels the demoniacs are consistently looked upon and treated as unconscious and helpless victims (see DEMON,DEMONOLOGY ). The frequent use of this term "demonized" (daimonizomenoi) together with all that is told us of the methods of treating these eases adopted by our Lord and His apostles (see EXORCISM) indicates the belief of the New Testament writers that the control of demons over men is obtained outside of or below the region of conscious volition and that the condition of the sufferers is pathological.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.5

(2) The same must be said of the Lydian maiden whose cure by Paul is recorded in Acts 16:16. This is the one instance in the New Testament where divination is connected with spirits. The account emphasizes the excitable neurosis of the patient; and the belief on the part of the apostles and of the writer of Acts that the girl was not the conscious accomplice of her masters, but their unfortunate victim through her mysterious malady, is clear. She was treated, as the other eases recorded in the New Testament, not as a conscious wrongdoer, but as a sick person to be healed.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.6

2. The Old Testament: (1) Turning now to the Old Testament, the instance which requires the most careful treatment, because it holds the key to all the rest, is the narrative of Saul's visit to the Witch of Endor in 1 Samuel 28:3-25. The Hebrew word 'obh which is usually translated "one who has a familiar spirit" (see list of passages at beginning of article) occurs in this narrative four times (verses 3, 7 twice, 8). According to the ordinary interpretation it is used in three different senses, two of which occur here. These three senses are (a) a person who controls a spirit, (b) the spirit controlled, (c) the power to control such a spirit. This meaning appears to be altogether too broad. Omitting to translate the word we have: (verse 3) "Saul had put away 'obhoth, and yidh`onim"; (verse 7), a woman, a mistress of an 'obh; (verse 8) "Divine unto me .... by the 'obh." It is extremely unlikely that the same word should be used in two senses so far apart as "person who has a spirit" and the "spirit itself" in the same context. In the last passage mentioned (verse 8) there is a double indication that the word 'obh cannot have either signification mentioned. Saul says: "Divine unto me by the 'obh and bring me up whomsoever I shall name unto thee." The expression "divine by" clearly points to some magical object used in divination. Control of a spirit through some magical object is familiar enough. The rest of Saul's statement confirms this view. The result of the divination is the calling up of a spirit. A spirit would hardly be used to call up another spirit. This conclusion is confirmed by the etymology. The word 'obh is supposed to mean "one who has a familiar spirit," from its root-significance of hollow and its primary meaning of wineskin. According to this derivation the word is applied to a necromancer on the supposition that the spirit inhabits his body and speaks from within. The transference to spirit is extremely unlikely and the explanation is not consistent with primitive ideas on spirit manifestation (see Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, 'owb end).ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.7

(2) We, therefore, hold with H. P. Smith (International Critical Commentary, "Samuel" in the place cited.), though partly on different grounds, that the word 'obh has the same meaning in all the passages where it occurs, and that it refers to a sacred object or fetish by which spiritistic divination was carried on.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.8

The significance of this conclusion is that the misleading expression "familiar spirit" disappears from the text, for Dr. Driver's interpretation of the companion word yidh`onim (see International Critical Commentary, Commentary on Deuteronomy in the place cited.) will scarcely be maintained in the face of this new meaning for 'obh. The prohibition contained in the law (Leviticus 20:27) against 'ohboth, and those using them, places them in the same catalogue of offense and futility with idol-worship in general.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.9

(3) This opinion is confirmed by two separate items of evidence. (a) In the Witch of Endor story Samuel's appearance, according to the idea of the narrator, was due to a miracle, not to the magic power of the feeble and cheating old woman to whom Saul had resorted. God speaks through the apparition a stern message of doom. No one was more startled than the woman herself, who for once had a real vision (1 Samuel 28:12). She not only gave a loud cry of astonishment and alarm but she described the figure which she saw as "a god coming up out of the each." The story is told with fidelity and clearly indicates the opinion that the actual appearance of a spirit is so violently exceptional as to indicate the immediate power and presence of God.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.10

(b) In Isaiah 8:19 the 'obhoth and yidh`onim are spoken of as those who "chirp and mutter." These terms refer to the necromancers themselves Septuagint translates 'obhoth by eggastromuthoi = ventriloquists) who practiced ventriloquism in connection with their magical rites. In Isaiah 29:4 it is said "Thy voice shall be as an 'obh, out of the ground." Here 'obh is usually interpreted as "ghost," but it is far more probable (see Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament sub loc.) that it refers as in Isaiah 8:19 to the ventriloqustic tricks of those who utter their oracles in voices intended to represent the spirits which they have evoked. They are stamped in these passages, as in the Witch of Endor narrative, as deceivers practicing a fraudulent article. By implication their power to evoke spirits with whom they were in familiar intercourse is denied.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.11

3. The Meaning of Idol-Worship: This leaves the way clear for a brief consideration of the words of Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:20 in connection with cognate passages in the Old Testament.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.12

(1) He argues that since idol-worship is really demon-worship, the partaking of heathen sacrifice is a communion with demons and a separation from Christ. It is usually taken for granted that this characterization of heathen worship was simply a part of the Jewish-Christian polemic against idolatry. Our fuller knowledge of the spiritism which conditions the use of images enables us to recognize the fact that from the viewpoint of heathenism itself Paul's idea was strictly correct. The image is venerated because it is supposed to represent or contain an invisible being or spirit, not necessarily a deity in the absolute sense, but a super-human living being capable of working good or ill to men.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.13

(2) In the King James Version the term devils is used in four Old Testament passages (Leviticus 17:7; Deuteronomy 32:17; 2 Chronicles 11:15; Psalms 106:37). In the Revised Version (British and American) "devils" has disappeared from the text--the word he-goats appears in Leviticus 17:7 and 2 Chronicles 11:15, while "demons" appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalms 106:37. The translation of se`irim as "he-goats" is literally correct, but conveys an erroneous conception of the meaning. The practice reprobated is the worship of Satyrs (see SATYR) or wood-demons supposed to be like goats in appearance and to inhabit lonely places. The same word is used in Isaiah 13:21; 34:14. The word translated "demons" in the Revised Version (British and American) is shedhim, a term used only twice and both times in connection with the rites and abominations of heathen worship. It is interesting to note that the word shidu is applied to the beings represented by the bull-colossi of Assyria (Driver, Dt in the place cited.). Brown, Driver, and Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament holds that the word shedhim is an Assyrian loan-word, while Briggs (ICC, Psalms 106:37) holds that shedhim were ancient gods of Canaan. In either case the word belongs to heathenism and is used in Scripture to describe heathen worship in its own terminology. The interpretation of these beings as evil is characteristic of Biblical demonism in general (see DEMON, etc.). The worship of idols was the worship of personal beings more than man and less than God, according to Jewish and Christian ideas (see Driver op. cit., 363). Septuagint translates both the above words by daimonia.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.14

4. Conclusion: The term "communion with demons" does not imply any power on the part of men to enter into voluntary relationship with beings of another world, but that, by sinful compliance in wrongdoing, such as idol-worship and magical rites, men may enter into a moral identification with evil powers against which it is their duty to fight.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.15

LITERATURE.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.16

The Dictionaries and Commentaries dealing with the passages quoted above contain discussions of the various aspects of the subject. Jewish superstitions are ably treated by Edersheim, Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (8th edition), II, 771, 773.ISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.17

Louis Matthews SweetISBE Communion With Demons; Devils.18

Communion; (Fellowship)

Communion; (Fellowship) - ko-mun'-yun: The terms "communion" and "fellowship" of the English Bible are varying translations of the words koinonia, and koinoneo, or their cognates. They designate acts of fellowship observed among the early Christians or express the unique sense of unity and fellowship of which these acts were the outward expression. The several passages in which these terms are used fall into two groups: those in which they refer to acts of fellowship, and those in which they refer to fellowship as experienced.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).2

I. Acts of Fellowship. The acts of fellowship mentioned in the New Testament are of four kinds.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).3

1. The Lord's Supper: Our information concerning the nature of the fellowship involved in the observance of this sacrament is confined to the single notice in 1 Corinthians 10:16-17, "The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a communion of the body of Christ?" Owing to the presence of the material elements in the sacrament there is a temptation to limit the word for communion to the sense of partaking. This, however, does not entirely satisfy the requirements of the context. The full significance of the term is to be sought in the light of the argument of the whole section (verses 14-22).ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).4

Paul is making a protest against Christians participating in idolatrous feasts on the ground that such feasts are really celebrated in honor of the demons associated with the idols, and that those who participate in them come into fellowship with demons. As a proof of this point the apostle cites the Lord's Supper with which his readers are familiar. By partaking of the cup and the bread the communicants are linked together in unity: "We, who are many, are one bread, one body: for we all partake of the one bread." Thus the communion of the elements is a real communion of the worshippers one with another and with Christ. Unless the communion be understood in this spiritual sense Paul's illustration falls short of the mark.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).5

See EUCHARIST.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).6

2. Communism: The term for fellowship as used in Acts 2:42 is by some interpreted in this sense: "They continued stedfastly in the apostles' teaching and fellowship, in the breaking of bread and the prayers." The fact that the four terms are used in pairs and that three of them refer to specific acts observed by the company of believers suggests that the term for fellowship also refers to some definite act similar to the others. It is very plausible to refer this to the community of goods described in the verses immediately following (see COMMUNITY OF GOODS). The author might, however, with equal propriety have regarded the interchange of spiritual experiences as an act of worship in the same class with "the breaking of bread and the prayers."ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).7

3. Contributions: Christian fellowship found a natural mode of expression in almsgiving. This is enjoined as a duty in Romans 12:13; 1 Timothy 6:18; Hebrews 13:16. An example of such giving is the great collection raised among the Gentileconverts for the poor saints of Jerusalem (Romans 15:26; 2 Corinthians 8:4; 9:13). To this collection Paul attached so much importance as a witness to the spirit of fellowship which the gospel inspires in all hearts alike, whether Jew or Gentile, that he desired even at the peril of his life to deliver it with his own hand.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).8

See COLLECTION.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).9

4. Cooperation: A form of fellowship closely related to almsgiving was that of formal aid or cooperation in Christian work, such as the aid given to Paul by the Philippians (Philippians 1:5). A unique form of this cooperation is the formal endorsement by giving the fight hand of fellowship as described in Galatians 2:9.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).10

II. Fellowship as Experienced. From the very beginning the early Christians experienced a peculiar sense of unity. Christ is at once the center of this unity and the origin of every expression of fellowship. Sometimes the fellowship is essentially an experience and as such it is scarcely susceptible of definition. It may rather be regarded as a mystical union in Christ. In other instances the fellowship approaches or includes the idea of intercourse. In some passages it is represented as a participation or partnership. The terms occur most frequently in the writings of Paul with whom the idea of Christian unity was a controlling principle.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).11

In its various relations, fellowship is represented: (1) As a communion between the Son and the Father. The gospel record represents Jesus as enjoying a unique sense of communion and intimacy with the Father. Among many such expressions those of Matthew 11:25-27 (compare Luke 10:21-22) and John 14:1-31 through John 15:1-27 are especially important. (2) As our communion with God, either with the Father or the Son or with the Father through the Son or the Holy Spirit. "Our fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ" (1 John 1:3; compare also John 14:6, 23, 16). (3) As our communion one with another. "If we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship one with another" (1 John 1:7). Sometimes the idea of communion occurs in relation with abstract ideas or experiences: "Have no fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness" (Ephesians 5:11); "the fellowship of his sufferings" (Philippians 3:10); "the fellowship of thy faith" (Philemon 1:6). In three passages the relation of the fellowship is not entirely clear: the "fellowship of the Spirit" (Philippians 2:1); "the communion of the Holy Spirit" (2 Corinthians 13:14); and "the fellowship of his Son Jesus Christ" (1 Corinthians 1:9). The fellowship is probably to be understood as that prevailing among Christians by virtue of the grace of Christ and the ministry of the Holy Spirit.ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).12

It is not to be inferred that the idea of fellowship is limited to the passages in which the specific words for communion are used. Some of the clearest and richest expressions of unity and fellowship are found in the Gospels, though, these words do not occur in them. In fact, perhaps, the most familiar and forcible expressions of the idea are those in which they are represented symbolically, as in the parable of the Vine and the Branches (John 15:1 ff) or in the figure of the Body and its Members (Matthew 5:29 ff; Romans 12:5; 1 Corinthians 12:1-31).ISBE Communion; (Fellowship).13

Russell Benjamin MillerISBE Communion; (Fellowship).14

Community of Goods

Community of Goods - ko-mu'-ni-ti, (hapanta koina eichon, literally, "They had all things (in) common"): In Acts 2:44, it is said that, in the infant church at Jerusalem, "all that believed were together, and had all things common," and (Acts 4:34 f) "as many as were possessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the prices of the things that were sold, and laid them at the apostles' feet." The inference from this, that there was an absolute disposal of all the property of all the members of the church, and that its proceeds were contributed to a common fund, has been disputed upon the ground that the example of Barnabas in selling "a field" for this purpose (Acts 4:37) would not have been mentioned, if this had been the universal rule. The thought conveyed is that all believers in that church held their property as a trust from the Lord, for the benefit of the entire brotherhood, and, as there was need, did as Barnabas.ISBE Community of Goods.2

No commandment, of which record has been preserved, prescribed any such course. It came from the spontaneous impulse of the sense of brotherhood in Christ, when the band of disciples was still small, making them in a sense one family, and under the external constraint of extreme want and persecution. So much there was, that they realized, under such conditions they had in common, that they were ready to extend this to all things. It was, in a sense, a continuance of the practice of a common purse in the band of immediate followers of our Lord during his ministry. The penalty inflicted on Ananias and Sapphira was not for any failure to comply fully with this custom, but because this freedom which they possessed (Acts 5:4) they falsely professed to have renounced, thus receiving in the estimation of their brethren a credit that was not their due. This custom did not last long. It was possible only within a limited circle, and under very peculiar circumstances. The New Testament recognizes the right of individual property and makes no effort to remove the differences that exist among believers themselves. The community of goods which it renders possible is spiritual (1 Corinthians 3:21 f), and not one of visible and external things. With respect to the latter, it enjoins upon the Christian, as a steward of God, the possession and administration of property for the progress of the kingdom of God, and the highest interests of men. The spirit of Acts 4:34 is always to pervade the association of believers as a true Christian community. Meyer, on the above passage, has suggested that it is not unlikely that the well-known poverty of the church at Jerusalem, and its long dependence upon the alms of other churches, may be connected with this early communistic practice, which, however justifiable and commendable at the time, bore its inevitable fruits in a subsequent season of great scarcity and lack of employment.ISBE Community of Goods.3

H. E. JacobsISBE Community of Goods.4

Compact; Compacted

Compact; Compacted - kom-pakt', kom-pakt'-ed (chabhar, "to be joined"; sumbibazo, "to raise up together"): "Compact" appears as translation of chabhar in Psalms 122:3, "Jerus .... a city that is compact together" (well built, its breaches restored, walls complete, and separate from all around it); and "compacted" (sumbibazo) occurs in the King James Version Ephesians 4:16, "fitly joined together and compacted," the Revised Version (British and American) "fitly framed and knit together." In the Revised Version (British and American) "compacted" is also the translation of sunistemi, "to set together" (2 Peter 3:5), "an earth compacted out of water and amidst (margin, through) water," which suggests the idea of water as the primary material (compare Genesis 1:2).ISBE Compact; Compacted.2

W. L. WalkerISBE Compact; Compacted.3

Company

Company - kum'-pa-ni: The fertility of the original languages in synonyms and varied shades of meaning is seen by the fact that 20 Hebrew and 12 Greek words are represented by this single term. An analysis of these words shows that "company" is both an indefinite and limitless term, signifying few or many, and all kinds of assemblages of people, e.g.:ISBE Company.2

(1) Caravan, (a) migratory (Isaiah 21:13 the King James Version); (b) commercial (Genesis 37:25 the King James Version); Job 6:19, "The companies of Sheba waited (in vain) for them."ISBE Company.3

(2) Military, gedhudh, "troop," hamon, 2 Chronicles 20:12; ro'sh, "head," "detachment"; Judges 7:16, 20: "three companies"; Judges 9:34, 37, 43: "four companies."ISBE Company.4

(3) Band (chebher) or "gang," as rendered by Keil and Delitzsch; a gang of murderous priests (Hosea 6:9).ISBE Company.5

(4) Camp or encampment (Genesis 32:8, 21; 50:9).ISBE Company.6

(5) Religious body, "company of prophets" (1 Samuel 19:20).ISBE Company.7

(6) Assembly, congregation, "company of nations" (Genesis 35:11; Ezekiel 38:4, 7, 13, 15).ISBE Company.8

(7) A tumultuous crowd (2 Kings 9:17).ISBE Company.9

(8) Associate, companion, often with reference to moral affinity (Job 34:8; Proverbs 29:3; Acts 10:28), kollaomai, "to glue or cement together," indicative of the binding power of moral affinity (the Revised Version (British and American) "to join himself"); as a verb, to "company with" or "keep company" (Acts 1:21; 1 Corinthians 5:9, 11; 2 Thessalonians 3:14). In Apocrypha in the sense of "to cohabit" (Susanna 1:54, 57, 58).ISBE Company.10

(9) A host. "Great was the company," etc. (Psalms 68:11 the Revised Version (British and American) "The women .... are a great host"). In the East it is the women who celebrate victories with song and dance (see 1 Samuel 18:6-7).ISBE Company.11

(10) A chorus, dance (mecholah). "The company of two armies" (Song of Solomon 6:13 the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "the dance of Mahanaim").ISBE Company.12

(11) Meal party, klisia, "a reclining company at meals." "Make them sit down (Greek "recline") in companies" (Luke 9:14). Compare "companion," from Latin com, "together," and panis, "bread."ISBE Company.13

(12) A myriad, a ten-thousand, an indefinite number (murias; Hebrews 12:22 (the Revised Version (British and American) "hosts")).ISBE Company.14

(13) Companions on a journey, sunodia, "a journeying together" (Luke 2:44).ISBE Company.15

(14) Signifying kinship of spirit, idios, "one's own." "They came to their own company" (Acts 4:23).ISBE Company.16

(15) A mob (Acts 17:5 (the Revised Version (British and American) "a crowd")).ISBE Company.17

Dwight M. PrattISBE Company.18

Comparative Religion

Comparative Religion - kom-par'-a-tiv:ISBE Comparative Religion.2

I. THE SUBJECT IN GENERALISBE Comparative Religion.3

1. Universality of ReligionISBE Comparative Religion.4

2. Theories of Its Origin and Growth of ReligionISBE Comparative Religion.5

3. EvolutionISBE Comparative Religion.6

II. RELATION OF CHRISTIANITY TO ETHNIC FAITHS AND THEIR TENETSISBE Comparative Religion.7

1. KarmaISBE Comparative Religion.8

2. GodISBE Comparative Religion.9

3. The Summum BonumISBE Comparative Religion.10

4. Self-Revelation of GodISBE Comparative Religion.11

5. IncarnationISBE Comparative Religion.12

6. SalvationISBE Comparative Religion.13

7. FaithISBE Comparative Religion.14

8. Approach to GodISBE Comparative Religion.15

III. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNIC FAITHSISBE Comparative Religion.16

1. Tenets Common to All ReligionsISBE Comparative Religion.17

2. Tendency to Degradation, not to Progress, in Ethnic FaithsISBE Comparative Religion.18

3. Mythology and ReligionISBE Comparative Religion.19

4. Religion And Morality in Ethnic FaithsISBE Comparative Religion.20

IV. SUPPOSED RESEMBLANCES TO REVEALED RELIGIONISBE Comparative Religion.21

1. RitesISBE Comparative Religion.22

2. DogmasISBE Comparative Religion.23

3. Asserted Parallels to Gospel HistoryISBE Comparative Religion.24

4. Virgin BirthISBE Comparative Religion.25

5. Heathen Aspirations and Unconscious PropheciesISBE Comparative Religion.26

6. Lessons Taught by Comparative ReligionISBE Comparative Religion.27

LITERATUREISBE Comparative Religion.28

I. The Subject in General. The science of comparative religion is perhaps the latest born of all sciences. Largely in consequence of this fact, our knowledge of what it really proves is still far from definite, and men draw most contradictory conclusions on this point. As in the case of all new sciences in the past, not a few people have endeavored under its shelter to attack Christianity and all revealed religion. These assaults already give signs of failure--as in similar cases previously--and a new evidence of Christianity is emerging from the conflict. It is only "a little learning" that is proverbially dangerous. The subject with which the science of comparative religion deals is religion in general and all the facts which can be learnt about all religions ancient and modern, whether professed by savages or prevalent among highly civilized communities, whether to be studied in sacred books or learnt orally from the people.ISBE Comparative Religion.29

1. Universality of Religion: In this way we learn first of all that religion is a universal phenomenon, found among all nations, in all conditions, though differing immensely in its teachings, ceremonies and effects in different places. It is perhaps the most powerful for good or evil of all the instincts (for it is an instinct) which influence mankind.ISBE Comparative Religion.30

2. Theories of Origin and Growth of Religion: To account for the origin and growth of religion various theories have been propounded: (1) "Humanism," which is the revival of the ancient view of Euhemeros (circa 400 BC) that all religion arose from fear of ghosts, and all the gods were but men who had died; (2) "Animism," which traces religion to early man's fancy that every object in Nature had a personality like his own; (3) the Astral Theory, which supposes that religion originated from worship of the heavenly bodies. It is clear that there are facts to support each of these hypotheses, yet no one of them satisfies all the conditions of the case. To (1) it has been replied that most tribes from the earliest times clearly distinguished between those deities who had been men, and the gods proper, who had never been men and had never died. Regarding (2), it should be observed that it admits that man's consciousness of his own personality and his fancy that it exists in other creatures also does not account for his worshipping them, unless we grant the existence of the sensus numinis within him: if so, then this explains, justifies, and necessitates religion. (3) The Astral Theory is in direct opposition to Euhemerism or Humanism. It ascribes personality to the heavenly bodies in man's early fancy; but it, too, has to presuppose the sensus numinis, without which religion would be impossible, as would be the science of optics if man had not the sense of sight.ISBE Comparative Religion.31

3. Evolution: It is often held that religion is due to evolution. If so, then its evolution, resulting ex hypothesi in Christianity as its acme, must be the working out of a Divine "Eternal Purpose" (prothesis ton aionon, Ephesians 3:11), just as has been the evolution of an amoeba into a man on the Evolutionary Theory. This would be an additional proof of the truth of Christianity. But, though doubtless there has been evolution--or gradual progress under Divine guidance--in religion, the fact of Christ is sufficient to show that there is a Divine self-revelation too. Hence, the claim of Christianity to be the absolute religion. "The pre-Christian religions were the age-long prayer, the Incarnation was the answer" (Illingworth). Christianity as revealed in Christ adds what none of the ethnic faiths could prove their claim to--authority, holiness, revelation.ISBE Comparative Religion.32

II. Relation of Christianity to Ethnic Faiths and Their Tenets.ISBE Comparative Religion.33

It is very remarkable that Christianity--though clearly not a philosophy but a religion that has arisen under historical circumstances which preclude the possibility of supposing it the product of Eclecticism--yet sums up in itself all that is good in all religions and philosophies, without the bad, the fearful perversions and corruptions of the moral sense, too often found in them. The more the study of comparative religion is carried on the more plainly evident does this become. It also supplements in a wonderful way the half-truths concealed rather than revealed in other systems, whether religious or philosophical. We subjoin a few instances of this.ISBE Comparative Religion.34

1. Karma: Karma is strongly insisted on in Hinduism and Buddhism. These teach that every deed, good or bad, must have its result, that "its fruit must be eaten" here or hereafter. So does Christianity quite as forcibly (Galatians 6:7-8). But neither Indian faith explains how sin can be forgiven, evil be overruled for good, nor how, by trampling under foot their vices, men may rise higher (Aug., Sermo iii, De Ascensione). They recognize, in some sense, the existence of evil, and illogically teach that rites and certain ascetic practices help to overcome it. They know of no Atonement, though modern Hinduism endeavors to propitiate the deities by sacrifices, as indeed was done in Vedic times. Conscience they cannot explain. Christianity, while showing the heinousness of sin as no other system does, and so supplementing the others, supplements them still further by the Atonement, showing that God is just, and teaching how His very righteousness can be brought to "justify" the sinner (Romans 3:26).ISBE Comparative Religion.35

2. God: Mahayana Buddhism proclaims an immanent but not transcendent being (Dharma-kaya), who is "the ultimate reality that underlies all particular phenomena" (Suzuki), who wills and reflects, though not fully personal. He is not the Creator of the world but a kind of Animus mundi. He is the sum total of all sentient beings, and they have no individual existence, no "ego-soul." The world of matter has no real existence but is his self-manifestation. Christianity supplements and corrects this by teaching the transcendence as well as the immanence (Acts 17:28) of the Creator, who is at least personal, if not something higher, who is the Source of reality though not Himself the sole reality, and of our personality and life, and "who only hath immortality" (1 Timothy 6:16).ISBE Comparative Religion.36

3. The "Summum Bonum": Vedantism and Cuffiism proclaim that ultimr~te absorption in the impersonal "It" is the summum bonum, and the Chandogya Upanishad says, "There is just one thing, without a second" (Book VI, 2 1, 2). Of this one thing everything is, so to speak, a part: there being no ultimate difference between the human and the Divine. Thus sin is denied and unreality proclaimed (Maya, illusion). The yearning for union with God underlying all this is satisfied in Christianity, which provides reconciliation with God and shows how by new spiritual birth men may become children of God (John 1:12-13) and "partakers of the divine nature" (2 Peter 1:4), without being swallowed up therein like a raindrop in the ocean: the union being spiritual and not material.ISBE Comparative Religion.37

4. Self-Revelation of God: Orthodox (Sunni) Muslim theology declares God to be separated from man by an impassable gulf and hence, to be unknowable. Philosophically this leads to Agnosticism, though opposed to Polytheism. Among the Jews the philosophy of Maimonides ends in the same failure to attain to a knowledge of the Divine or to describe God except by negations (Cepher Ha-madda`, 1 11). The Bible, on the other hand, while speaking of Him as invisible, and unknowable through merely human effort (Job 11:7-8; John 1:18), yet reveals Him in Christ, who is God and man. Jewish mysticism endeavored to solve the problem of creation by the invention of the 'Adham qadhmon (archetypal man), and earlier by Philo's Logos doctrine and the Memra' of the Targums. But these abstractions have neither reality nor personality. The Christian Logos doctrine presents no theoretical but the actual historical, eternal Christ (compare John 1:1-3; Hebrews 1:2).ISBE Comparative Religion.38

5. Incarnation: Heathenism seeks to give some idea of the Invisible by means of idols; Vaishnavism has its doctrine of avataras; Babiism and Bahaiism their dogma of "manifestations" (mazhar) in human beings; the `Ali-ilahis are so called because they regard `Ali as God. Instead of these unworthy theories and deifications, Christianity supplies the holy, sinless, perfect Incarnation in Christ.ISBE Comparative Religion.39

6. Salvation: Hinduism offers mukti (moksha), "deliverance" from a miserable existence; Christianity in Christ offers pardon, deliverance from sin, and reconciliation with God.ISBE Comparative Religion.40

7. Faith: Krishnaism teaches unreasoning "devotion" (bhakti) of "mind, body, property" to certain supposed incarnations of Krishna (Vishnu), quite regardless of their immoral conduct; Christianity inculcates a manly, reasonable "faith" in Christ, but only after "proving all things."ISBE Comparative Religion.41

8. Approach to God: Pilgrimages in Islam and Hinduism indicate but do not satisfy a need for approach to God; Christianity teaches a growth in grace. and in likeness to Christ, and so a spiritual drawing near to God.ISBE Comparative Religion.42

III. General Characteristics of Ethnic Faiths. 1. Tenets Common to All Religions: In all religions we find, though in many various forms, certain common beliefs, such as: (1) the existence of some spiritual power or powers, good or bad, superior to man and able to affect his present and future life; (2) that there is a difference between right and wrong, even though not clearly defined; (3) that there is an afterlife of some sort, with happiness or misery often regarded as in some measure dependent upon conduct or upon the observance of certain rites here. In the main the fact of the all but universal agreement of religions upon these points proves that they are true in substance. Even such an agnostic philosophy as original Buddhism was, has been constrained by human need to evolve from itself or admit from without deistic or theistic elements, and thus Buddha himself has been deified by the Mahayana School. Yet no ethnic faith satisfies the "human soul naturally Christian," as Tertullian calls it (Liber Apologeticus, cap. 17), for none of them reveals One God, personal, holy, loving, just, merciful, omniscient and omnipotent. Even Islam fails here. Ethnic religions are either (1) polytheistic, worshipping many gods, all imperfect and some evil, or (2) mystical, evaporating away, as it were, God's Personality, thus rendering Him a mental abstraction, as in the Hindu philosophical systems and in Mahayana Buddhism. Christianity as revealed in Christ does just what all other faiths fail to do, reconciling these two tendencies and correcting both.ISBE Comparative Religion.43

2. Tendency to Degradation, not to Progress, in Ethnic Faiths:ISBE Comparative Religion.44

As a general rule, the nearer to their source we can trace religions, the purer we find them. In most cases a degradation and not to progressive improvement manifests itself as time goes on, and this is sometimes carried to such an extent that, as Lucretius found in Rome and Greece, religion becomes a curse and not a blessing. Thus, for example, regarding ancient Egypt, Professor Renouf says: "The sublimer portions of the Egyptian religion are not the comparatively late result of a process of development. The sublimer portions are demonstrably ancient, and the last stage of the Egyptian religion was by far the grossest and most corrupt" (Hibbert Lectures, 91). Modern Hinduism, again, is incomparably lower in its religious conceptions than the religion of the Vedas. In Polynesia the same rule holds good, as is evident from the myths about Tangaroa. In Samoa he was said to be the son of two beings, the "Cloudless Heaven" and the "Outspread Heaven." He originally existed in open space. He made the sky to dwell in. He then made the earth. Somewhat later he was supposed to be visible in the moon! But a lower depth was reached. In Hawaii, Tangaroa has sunk to an evil being, the leader of a rebellion against another god, Tane, and is now condemned to abide in the lowest depths of darkness and be the god of death. In South Africa, Australia and elsewhere, traditions still linger of a Creator of all things, but his worship has been entirely laid aside in favor of lower and more evil deities.ISBE Comparative Religion.45

3. Mythology and Religion: Almost everywhere mythology has arisen and perverted religion into something very different from what it once was. The same tendency has more than once manitested itself in the Christian church, thus rendering a return to Christ's teachings necessary. As an instance, compare the modern popular religion of Italy with that of the New Testament. It is remarkable that no religion but the Christian, however, has shown its capability of reform.ISBE Comparative Religion.46

4. Religion and Morality in Ethnic Faiths: For the most part, in ethnic religions, there is no recognized connection between religion and morality. The wide extension of phallic rites and the existence of hierodoulai and hierodouloi in many lands show that religion has often consecrated gross immorality. Mythology aids in this degradation. Hence, Seneca, after mentioning many evil myths related of Jupiter, etc., says: "By which nothing else was effected but the removal from men of their shame at sinning, if they deemed such beings goals" (L. A. Seneca, De beata vita cap. 26). With the possibly doubtful exception of the religion of certain savage tribes, in no religion is the holiness of God taught except in Christianity and its initial stage, Judaism. Ethnic deities are mostly born of heaven and earth, if not identified with them in part, and are rarely regarded as creating them. It was otherwise, however, with Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism, and with certain Sumerian deities, and there are other exceptions, too. The "religions of Nature" have generally produced gross immorality, encouraged and even insisted upon as a part of their ritual; compare Mylitta-worship in Babylon and that of the "Mater deum," Venus, Anahita, etc.ISBE Comparative Religion.47

IV. Supposed Resemblances to Revealed Religion. 1. Rites: Much attention has been called to real or supposed community of rites and "myths," especially when any ethnic faith is compared with Christianity. Sacrifice, for instance, is an essential part of every religion. In Christianity none are now offered, except the "living sacrifice" of the believer, though that of Christ offered once for all is held to be the substance foreshadowed by Jewish sacrifices. Purificatory bathings are found almost everywhere, and that very naturally, because of the universality of conscience and of some sense of sin.ISBE Comparative Religion.48

2. Dogmas: Belief in the fiery end of the world existed among the Stoics, and is found in the Eddas of Scandinavia and the Puranas of India. Traditions of an age before sin and death came upon mankind occur in many different lands. Many of these traditions may easily be accounted for. But in some cases the supposed resemblance to revealed religion does not exist, or is vastly exaggerated. The Yoga philosophy in India is popularly supposed to aim at union with God, as does Christianity; but (so understood) the Yoga system, as has already been said, implies loss of personality and absorption into the impersonal, unconscious "It" (Tat). The doctrine of a Trinity is nowhere found, only Triads of separate deities. Belief in a resurrection is found in only very late parts of the Persian (Zoroastrian) scriptures, composed after centuries of communication with Jews and Christians. In the earlier Avesta only a "restoration" of the world is mentioned (compare Acts 3:21). Original (Hinayana) Buddhism teaches "immortality" (amata), but by this is meant Nirvana ("extinction"). Mithraism has been said to teach the "resurrection of the body," but, according to Eubulus and Porphyry, it taught rather the transmigration of the soul.ISBE Comparative Religion.49

3. Asserted Parallels to Gospel History: The assertion is often made that many of the leading gospel incidents in the life of our Lord are paralleled in other religions. It is said, for instance, that the resurrection of Adonis, Osiris and Mithra was believed in by their followers. It is true that, in some places, Adonis was said to have come to life the day after he had met his death by the tusk of a boar (the cold of winter); but everywhere it was recognized that he was not a man who had been killed, but the representative of the produce of the soil, slain or dying down in the cold weather and growing again in spring. As to Osiris, his tomb was shown in more than one place in Egypt, and his body was never supposed to have come to life again, though his spirit was alive and was ruler of the underworld. Mithra was admitted to be the genius of the sun. He was said to have sprung from a rock (in old Persian and Sanskrit the same word means "sky," "cloud" and "rock"), but not to have been incarnated, nor to have died, much less to have risen from the dead. The modern erroneous fancy that Mithraists believed in his resurrection rests solely on one or at most two passages in Christian writers, which really refer to the burial of Osiris and the removal of his body from the tomb by his hostile brother Typhon (Set). The high morality attributed to Mithraism and even to the worship of Isis rests on no better foundation than the wrong rendering of a few passages and the deliberate ignoring of many which contradict theory.ISBE Comparative Religion.50

4. Virgin Birth: Virgin birth, we have been told, is a doctrine of many religions. As a matter of fact, it is found in hardly one ethnic faith. Nothing of the kind was believed regarding Osiris, Adonis, Horus, Mithra, Krishna, Zoroaster. Of Buddha it is denied entirely in all the books of the Southern Canon (Pali), and is found expressed only vaguely in one or two late uncanonical works of the Northern (Sanskrit) School. It was doubtless borrowed from Christianity. Supernatural birth of quite a different (and very repulsive) kind is found in many mythologies, but that is quite another thing.ISBE Comparative Religion.51

5. Heathen Aspirations and Unconscious Prophecies:ISBE Comparative Religion.52

Heathenism contains some vague aspirations and unconscious prophecies, the best example of which is to be found in Vergil's Fourth Eclogue, if that be not rather due to Jewish influence. Any such foregleams of the coming light as are real and not merely imaginary, such, for instance, as the Indian doctrine of the avataras or "descents" of Vishnu, are to be accounted for as part of the Divine education of the human race. The "false dawn," so well known in the East, is not a proof that the sun is not about to rise, nor can its existence justify anyone in shutting his eyes to stud rejecting the daylight when it comes. It is but a harbinger of the real dawn.ISBE Comparative Religion.53

6. Lessons Taught by Comparative Religion: Comparative religion teaches us that religion is essential to and distinctive of humanity. The failures of the ethnic faiths no less than their aspirations show how great is man's need of Christ, and how utterly unable imagination has ever proved itself to be even to conceive of such an ideal character as He revealed to us in the full light of history and in the wonder-working effects of His character upon the lives and hearts of those who then and in all ages since have in Him received life and light.ISBE Comparative Religion.54

LITERATURE.ISBE Comparative Religion.55

Tylor, Anthropology; Jordan, Comparative Religion, Its Genesis and Growth; Falke, Zum Kampfe der drei Weltreligionen; Gould, Origin and Development of Religious Belief; Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion; Reville, Prolegomena to the History of Religions; Max Muller, Introduction to the Science of Religion; Hardwick, Christ and Other Masters; Kellogg, The Light of Asia and the Light of the World; Farrar, The Witness of History to Christ; A. Lung, Magic and Religion; The Making of Religion; Johnson, Oriental Religions and Their Relation to Universal Religion; Farnell, The Evolution of Religion; Howitt, The Native Tribes of Southeast Australia; Smith, Religion of the Semites; Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions; Dilger, Erloschen des Menschen nach Hinduismus und Christentum; Rhys Davids, Origin and Growth of Religion; Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882); Dollinger, The Gentile and the Jew in the Courts of the Temple of Christ (1862); Dodson, Evolution and Its Bearing on Religion; MacCulloch, Comparative Theology; Baumann, Uber Religionen und Religion; Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker; Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics; Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris; Dufourcq, Hist. comparee des rel. paiennes et de la religion juive; Oesterley, Evolution of Religious Ideas; Martindale, Bearing of Comp. Study of Religions on Claims of Christianity; W. Clair Tisdall, Comparative Religion.ISBE Comparative Religion.56

W. St. Clair TisdallISBE Comparative Religion.57

Compare

Compare - kom-par' (damah, mashal, [`arakh]; paraballo, sugkrino): "Compare" is the translation of damah, "to be like" (Song of Solomon 1:9); of mashal, "to liken," "compare" (Isaiah 46:5); of `arakh, "to set in array," "compare" (Psalms 89:6; Isaiah 40:18); of shawah, "to be equal" (Proverbs 3:15; 8:11).ISBE Compare.2

In the New Testament sugkrino, "to judge" or "sift together," is translated "comparing," "comparing spiritual things with spiritual" (1 Corinthians 2:13 the English Revised Version), the American Standard Revised Version "combining" ("adapting the discourse to the subject," Thayer), the Revised Version, margin "interpreting spiritual things to spiritual (men)."ISBE Compare.3

W. L. WalkerISBE Compare.4

Compass; Compasses

Compass; Compasses - kum'-pas, kum'-pas-iz: "Compass," noun, is the translation of chugh, "a circle," "vault" or "arch" ("when he set a compass upon the face of the depth" Proverbs 8:27 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American), the American Standard Revised Version "circle"; compare Job 26:10; and see CIRCLE; VAULT OF EARTH); of karkobh, "a margin" "border" (Exodus 27:5, "the compass of the altar," the Revised Version (British and American) "the ledge round," so Exodus 38:4); the phrase "to fetch a compass" is the translation of sabhabh, "to turn about," "go round about" (Numbers 34:5; Joshua 15:3, the Revised Version (British and American) "turn about," 2 Samuel 5:23; 2 Kings 3:9, the Revised Version (British and American) "make a circuit"); of perierchomai, "to go about" (Acts 28:13, the Revised Version (British and American) "made a circuit"; margin "Some ancient authorities read cast loose"; see CIRCUIT).ISBE Compass; Compasses.2

"Compasses" is the Revised Version (British and American) for "compass," mechughah, an instrument for describing a circle: "He marketh it out with the compasses" (Isaiah 44:13) in making an idol.ISBE Compass; Compasses.3

The verb "to compass" occurs frequently in the senses of "to surround" and "to go round about," e.g. Genesis 2:11, "which compasseth the whole land of Havilah," Deuteronomy 2:1, "We compassed (went around) mount Seir many days"; in Jeremiah 31:22 we have "A new thing on the earth: a woman shall compass a man," the Revised Version (British and American) "encompass"; possibly as a suitor; but more probably as a protector. In those happy days, the protection of women (under God, Jeremiah 31:28) will be sufficient, while the men are at their work; "to encompass" ("The cords of death compassed me" Psalms 18:4; "the waves of death," 2 Samuel 22:5). "To gird" (Isaiah 50:11 the Revised Version (British and American)); "to lie around," "to be laid around" (Hebrews 5:2, "compassed with infirmity" (clothed with it); Hebrews 12:1, "compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses").ISBE Compass; Compasses.4

In Apocrypha we have "compassed about with yawning darkness" (Wisdom of Solomon 19:17); "compassed the circuit of heaven" (Ecclesiasticus 24:5); "compassed with pomegranates of gold" (Ecclesiasticus 45:9); "The rainbow compasseth the heaven" (Ecclesiasticus 43:12); the course of the sun (1 Esdras 4:34).ISBE Compass; Compasses.5

W. L. WalkerISBE Compass; Compasses.6

Compassion

Compassion - kom-pash'-un: Compassion is the translation of racham, "to love," "pity," "be merciful" (Deuteronomy 13:17; 30:3); of rachamim, "mercies" (1 Kings 8:50); of chamal, "to pity," "spare" (Exodus 2:6; 1 Samuel 23:21); rachum (Psalms 78:38; 86:15; 111:4; 112:4; 145:8), is rendered by the American Standard Revised Version "merciful." We have splagchnizomai, "to have the bowels yearning," in Matthew 9:36; 14:14, etc.; sumpatheo (Hebrews 10:34), "to suffer with (another)"; sumpathes (1 Peter 3:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "compassionate," margin, Greek, "sympathetic"); metriopatheo (Hebrews 5:2, the Revised Version (British and American) "who can bear gently with"); eleeo, "to show mildness," "kindness" (Matthew 18:33; Mark 5:19; Jude 1:22, the Revised Version (British and American) "mercy"); oikteiro, "to have pity" or "mercy" (Romans 9:15 bis).ISBE Compassion.2

Both racham and splagchnizomai are examples of the physical origin of spiritual terms, the bowels being regarded as the seat of the warm, tender emotions or feelings. But, while racham applied to the lower viscera as well as the higher, splagchnon denoted chiefly the higher viscera, the heart, lungs, liver.ISBE Compassion.3

The Revised Version (British and American) gives "compassion" for "mercy" (Isaiah 9:17; 14:1; 27:11; 49:13; Jeremiah 13:14; 30:18; Daniel 1:9 the King James Version "tender love with"; for "bowels of compassion," 1 John 3:17); for "mercy" (Hebrews 10:28); "full of compassion" for "merciful" (the American Standard Revised Version "merciful" in all cases) (Ex, 34:6; Nehemiah 9:17; Psalms 103:8; Joel 2:13; Jonah 4:2); "compassions for mercies" (Isaiah 63:15; Philippians 2:1), for "repentings" (Hosea 11:8).ISBE Compassion.4

Compassion, literally a feeling with and for others, is a fundamental and distinctive quality of the Biblical conception of God, and to its prominence the world owes more than words can express. (1) It lay at the foundation of Israel's faith in Yahweh. For it was out of His compassion that He, by a marvelous act of power, delivered them from Egyptian bondage and called them to be His own people. Nothing, therefore, is more prominent in the Old Testament than the ascription of compassion, pity, mercy, etc., to God; the people may be said to have gloried in it. It is summed up in such sayings as that of the great declaration in Exodus 34:6: "Yahweh--a God full of compassion (the American Standard Revised Version merciful) and gracious" (compare Psalms 78:38; 86:15; 111:4; 112:4; 145:8; Lamentations 3:22, "His compassions fail not"). And, because this was the character of their God, the prophets declared that compassion was an essential requirement on the part of members of the community (Hosea 6:6; Micah 6:8; compare Proverbs 19:17). (2) In Jesus Christ, in whom God was "manifest in the flesh," compassion was an outstanding feature (Matthew 9:36; 14:14, etc.) and He taught that it ought to be extended, not to friends and neighbors only, but to all without exception, even to enemies (Matthew 5:43-48; Luke 10:30-37).ISBE Compassion.5

The God of the New Testament, the Father of men, is most clearly revealed as "a God full of compassion." It extends to the whole human race, for which He effected not merely a temporal, but a spiritual and eternal, deliverance, giving up His own Son to the death of the cross in order to save us from the worst bondage of sin, with its consequences; seeking thereby to gain a new, wider people for Himself, still more devoted, more filled with and expressive of His own Spirit. Therefore all who know the God and Father of Christ, and who call themselves His children, must necessarily cultivate compassion and show mercy, "even as he is merciful." Hence, the many apostolic injunctions to that effect (Ephesians 4:32; Colossians 3:12; James 1:27; 1 John 3:17, etc.). Christianity may be said to be distinctively the religion of Compassion.ISBE Compassion.6

W. L. WalkerISBE Compassion.7

Compel

Compel - kom-pel': Our English word always has in it now the flavor of force, not always, however, physical. It may be strong moral urgency, though "constrain" better expresses this.ISBE Compel.2

1. In the Old Testament: There are several words indicative of such strong pressure: (1) 'anac "to press": "none could compel" to drink (Esther 1:8); (2) nadhach, "to drive," "force": "compelled Judah thereto" (the King James Version, the Revised Version, margin); "led Judah astray" the Revised Version (British and American) (2 Chronicles 21:11). The same word rendered "force," as the adulteress by flattering words her victim (Proverbs 7:21); (3) 'adhadh, "to serve": not to compel him to serve as a bond servant (Leviticus 25:39 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "make him serve"); (4) parats, "to break forth upon," "urge": "his servants compelled him" (1 Samuel 28:23 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) "constrained").ISBE Compel.3

2. In the New Testament: In the New Testament two words are found: (1) aggareuo: The word is of Persian origin and means to employ a courier. The Aggaroi were public couriers stationed by appointment of the kings of Persia, at fixed localities, with horses ready for use, to transmit speedily from one to another the royal messages. These couriers had authority to press into their service, in case of need, horses, vessels, and even men, they might meet (Josephus, Ant, XIII ii, 3); "compel thee to go a mile" (Matthew 5:41 the King James Version; the Revised Version, margin "impress"); "compelled Simon to bear his cross" (Matthew 27:32; Mark 15:21 the King James Version; the Revised Version, margin "impressed"). (2) anagkazo, "to constrain," whether by force, threats, entreaties, persuasion, etc.: "compel them to come in" (Luke 14:23 the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "constrain"). This has been a favorite text of religious persecutors. As Robertson says in his history of Charles V, "As they could not persuade, they tried to compel men to believe." But it simply means that utmost zeal and moral urgency should be used by Christians to induce sinners to enter the Kingdom of God. Compare Acts 26:11.ISBE Compel.4

George Henry TreverISBE Compel.5

Complaining

Complaining - kom-plan'-ing (tsewachah, "cry," "outcry," siach, "meditation," "complaint"): tsewachah is translated "complaining" (Psalms 144:14, the Revised Version (British and American) "outcry," "no complaining (outcry) in our streets," i.e. "open places" where the people commonly assembled near the gate of the city (compare 2 Chronicles 32:6; Nehemiah 8:1); a picture of peace in the city (compare Isaiah 24:11; Jeremiah 14:2); some render "battlecry"; siach (the Revised Version (British and American) Proverbs 23:29, the King James Version "babbling"), of the drunkard.ISBE Complaining.2

Complete

Complete - kom-plet': In the King James Version for pleroo, the verb ordinarily used for the coming to pass of what had been predicted. the King James Version translates this "complete" in Colossians 2:10; 4:12 to express the final and entire attainment of what is treated, leaving nothing beyond to be desired or hoped for; otherwise rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) ("made full"). In the Revised Version (British and American), c. appears once for Greek artios, from aro, "to join," in 2 Timothy 3:17, in sense of "accurately fitted for," where the King James Version has "perfect."ISBE Complete.2

Composition; Compound

Composition; Compound - kom-po-zish'-un, kom'-pound (mathkoneth, "measure"); (subst.) (raqach, "to make perfume," roqach, "perfume"): Used of the sacred anointing oil (Exodus 30:25, 32-33) and of the holy perfume (Exodus 30:37-38), which were not to be used for any profane purpose.ISBE Composition; Compound.2

Comprehend

Comprehend - kom-pre-hend': Used in a twofold sense in both the Old Testament and New Testament. This double meaning appears in two Hebrew and two Greek words which signify in turn (1) mental or spiritual perception, (2) capacity to hold or contain, as in a measure or in an all-inclusive principle, e.g.:ISBE Comprehend.2

(1) yadha`, "to see with the eyes or the mind," hence, "know," "understand." Job was urged by Elihu to accept as inscrutable the ways of God, inasmuch as His operations in the physical world are so mighty and mysterious that "we cannot comprehend" them (Job 37:5). Modern science, in unveiling the secrets of Nature, is opening the way for a better understanding of God's creative purpose and plan.ISBE Comprehend.3

katalambano, "to lay hold of," hence, mentally to apprehend: used of the spiritual capacity of the Christian "to comprehend (the Revised Version (British and American) "apprehend") with all saints" (Ephesians 3:18) the measureless love of God; and of the inability of the unrenewed heart to know or perceive the revelation of God made in Christ: "the darkness comprehended it not" (John 1:5 the Revised Version (British and American) "apprehended"; the Revised Version, margin "overcame"; compare John 12:35).ISBE Comprehend.4

(2) kul, "to measure" or "contain," as grain in a bushel. So God's immeasurable greatness is seen in His being able to hold oceans in the hollow of His hand and "comprehend the dust of the earth in a measure" (Isaiah 40:12).ISBE Comprehend.5

anakephalaioo, "to sum up under one head," e.g. love includes every other moral principle and process. The entire law on its manward side, says Paul, "is comprehended (the Revised Version (British and American) "summed up") in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" (Romans 13:9).ISBE Comprehend.6

Dwight M. PrattISBE Comprehend.7

Conaniah

Conaniah - kon-a-ni'-a (konanyahu, "Jah has rounded or sustained"; the King James Version Cononiah):ISBE Conaniah.2

(1) A Levite, appointed with his brother Shimei by Hezekiah, the king, and Azariah, the ruler of the house of God, to be overseer of the oblations and tithes and the dedicated things (2 Chronicles 31:12-13).ISBE Conaniah.3

(2) One of the chiefs of the Levites mentioned in connection with the passover celebration in Josiah's reign (2 Chronicles 35:9).ISBE Conaniah.4

Conceal

Conceal - kon-sel' (parakalupto): Found but once in the New Testament (Luke 9:45). The primary meaning is to cover by hanging something in front of the object hidden. The purpose of the one concealing is made prominent. There is, therefore, a reserve and studied progress in regard to the statement of facts, that is not always a suppression of truth (Proverbs 12:16, 23). God withholds more than He reveals (Proverbs 25:2; compare Psalms 97:2; 1 Timothy 6:16).ISBE Conceal.2

Conceit

Conceit - kon-set': An idiomatic rendering of a phrase, phronimoi en heautois, in Romans 11:25; 12:16; meaning literally, "wise with one's self," i.e. "in one's own opinion," or, as in parallel Old Testament passages (Proverbs 26:5, 12 the Revised Version, margin), "in his own eyes" (Hebrew `ayin).ISBE Conceit.2

Conception, Immaculate

Conception, Immaculate - See IMMACULATE CONCEPTION.ISBE Conception, Immaculate.2

Conception; Conceive

Conception; Conceive - kon-sep'-shun, kon-sev' (harah, and derivatives; sullambano): Physically, the beginning of a new life in the womb of a mother, "to catch on," used thus some forty times, as in Genesis 3:16; 4:1; Psalms 51:5. Metaphorically, applied to the start and growth within the heart, of thought, purpose, desire, e.g. "conceive mischief" (Job 15:35; Psalms 7:14), "conceive chaff" (Isaiah 33:11). This figure is carried out in details in James 1:15: "Lust, when it hath conceived, beareth sin."ISBE Conception; Conceive.2

Concerning

Concerning - kon-surn'-ing:ISBE Concerning.2

The Revised Version (British and American) makes frequent changes, such as "for," "as for," "from," "about," for "concerning"; "concerning" instead of "for," "of," "over," "in," "against," etc. Some of the other changes are, "unto that which is good" for "concerning" (Romans 16:19), "concerning" instead of "because of" (Jeremiah 23:9), for "the miracle of" (Mark 6:52); for "with" (Mark 10:41), for "of the Lord" (Acts 18:25), "concerning Jesus" (diferent text), "by way of disparagement" (2 Corinthians 11:21), instead of "concerning reproach"; "Why askest thou me concerning that which is good?" (Matthew 19:17) instead of "Why callest thou me good?" (different text; see the Revised Version, margin).ISBE Concerning.3

W. L. WalkerISBE Concerning.4

Concision

Concision - kon-sizh'-un (katatome, "mutilation," "cutting"): A term by which Paul contemptuously designates the merely fleshly circumcision upon which the Judaizers insisted as being necessary for Gentileconverts (Philippians 3:2), as distinguished from peritome, the true circumcision (Philippians 3:3). Compare Galatians 5:12 and Deuteronomy 23:1, and see CIRCUMCISION.ISBE Concision.2

Conclude

Conclude - kon-klood' (sumbibazo): Used only in Acts 16:10, where the King James Version has "assuredly gathering," i.e. "inferring." Where the King James Version has "conclude," the Revised Version (British and American) more accurately renders "reckon" (Romans 3:28); "giving judgment" (Acts 21:25); "shut up" (Romans 11:32; Galatians 3:22).ISBE Conclude.2

Conclusion

Conclusion - kon-kloo'-zhun (coph): In Ecclesiastes 12:13 the King James Version, where the Revised Version (British and American) has "the end," namely, a summary of the entire argument of the book.ISBE Conclusion.2

Concordance

Concordance - kon-kor'-dans:ISBE Concordance.2

1. Nature of WorkISBE Concordance.3

2. Classes of ConcordancesISBE Concordance.4

3. Their IndispensablenessISBE Concordance.5

4. Concordances to Latin VulgateISBE Concordance.6

5. Concordances to the Hebrew Old TestamentISBE Concordance.7

6. Concordances to the SeptuagintISBE Concordance.8

7. Concordances to the Greek New TestamentISBE Concordance.9

8. Concordances to the English BibleISBE Concordance.10

LITERATUREISBE Concordance.11

1. Nature of Work: The object of a concordance of Scripture is to guide the reader to any passage he is in search of by means of an alphabetical arrangement of the words found in Scripture, and the bringing together under each word of all the passages in which that word occurs. Thus, in the verse: "Cast thy burden upon Yahweh" (Psalms 55:22), the reader will look in the concordance under the words "cast" or "burden," and there will find a reference to the text. The merit of a concordance is obviously exhaustiveness and clearness of arrangement. There are abridged concordances of the Bible which give only the most important words and passages. These are seldom satisfactory, and a fuller work has in the end frequently to be resorted to.ISBE Concordance.12

2. Classes of Concordances: The ordinary reader is naturally most familiar with concordances of the English Bible, but it will be seen that, for scholarly purposes, concordances are just as necessary for the Scriptures in their original tongues, and for versions of the Scriptures other than English There are required concordances of the Old Testament in Hebrew, of the New Testament in Greek, of the Septuagint version (Greek) of the Old Testament, of the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) version (Latin) of the New Testament, as well as of the translations of the Scriptures into German, French and other living languages. There are now, further, required concordances of the RVV of the English Old Testament and New Testament, as well as of the King James Version. There are needed, besides, good concordances to the Apocrypha, alike in its the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American) forms. Textual criticism leads to modifications of the earlier concordances of the Hebrew and Greek texts. It is customary in concordances of the English version to facilitate reference by giving not only single words, but also phrases under which several passages are grouped, and to make the work more useful by furnishing lists of Scripture proper names, with their meanings, and, in the larger works, references to the Hebrew or Greek words for which the English words stand.ISBE Concordance.13

3. Their Indispensableness: The indispensableness of a good concordance for the proper study of the Bible is so apparent that it is not surprising that, since the idea was first conceived, much labor has been expended on the preparation of such works. The wonder rather is that the idea did not occur earlier than it did. No single scholar could ever hope to produce a perfect work of the kind by his own efforts. Modern concordances are based upon the labors of previous generations.ISBE Concordance.14

4. Concordances to Latin Vulgate: The oldest concordances date from the 13th century, and are based, as was then natural, upon the Latin Vulgate. A Concordantiae Morales is attributed to Antony of Padua (died 1231). The first concordance of which we have actual knowledge is that of Hugo of Caro, Dominican monk and cardinal (died 1263). It was called Concordantiae S. Jacobi from the monastery in which it was compiled. 500 monks are said to have been engaged upon its preparation. Hugo's Concordance became the basis of others into which successive improvements were introduced. The words of passages, at first wanting, were inserted; indeclinable particles were added; alphabetic arrangement was employed. Verse divisions were unknown till the time of Robert Stephens (1555).ISBE Concordance.15

See BIBLE.ISBE Concordance.16

5. Concordances to Hebrew Old Testament: The earliest Hebrew concordance seems to have been that of Rabbi Mordecai ben Nathan (1438-48). It went through several editions and was translated into Latin by Reuchlin the (1556). Both original and translation contained many errors. It was improved by Calasio, a Franciscan friar (1621), and more thoroughly by John Buxtorf, whose Concordance was published by his son (1632). This latter formed the basis of Dr. Julius Furst's Libr. Sacrorum Vet. Test. Concordantive Heb atque Chaldaic; 1840 (English translation, Hebrew and Chaldean Concordance). A later Hebrew Concordance in Germany is that of Solomon Mandelkern (1896). In England, in 1754, appeared the valuable Hebrew Concordance, Adapted to the English Bible, by Dr. Taylor, of Norwich. With it may be classed The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldaic Concordance (1843; revised edition, 1876).ISBE Concordance.17

6. Concordances to the Septuagint: Though earlier attempts are heard of, the first printed concordance of the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament) was that of Trommius, published in Amsterdam in 1718, in the author's 84th year. This important work remained the standard till quite lately.ISBE Concordance.18

It is very complete, giving references not only to the Septuagint, but to other versions (Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion) in which the words occur, and showing by an index at the end the Hebrew or Chaldaic words to which the Greek words correspond. In 1887 Bagster published A Handy Concordance of the Septuagint. Earlier works are superseded by the recent publication (1892, 1897, 1900) of Hatch and Redpath's scholarly Concordance to the Septuagint, and Other Greek versions of the Old Testament.ISBE Concordance.19

7. Concordances to the Greek New Testament: Concordances of the Greek New Testament began with that of Xystus Betulius (his real name was Birck) in 1554. The Concordance (Tameion) of Erasmus Schmid (1638) has often been reprinted and reedited. On it is based the useful abridged Concordance published by Bagster. Recent works are Bruder's (1842; 4th edition, 1888; based on Schmid, with many improvements); in America, Hudson's Critical Greek and English Concordance, revised by Ezra Abbot (1870); in England, Moulton and Geden's Concordance to the Greek Testament according to the Texts of Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and the English Revisers (1897).ISBE Concordance.20

8. Concordances to the English Bible: The list of concordances to the English Bible is a long one; it is necessary here to particularize only a few of the chief. The oldest is a Concordance of the New Testament, brought out before 1540 by one Thomas Gybson, though, as appears from the Preface, it was principally the work of the printer John Day (the producer of Foxe's Book of Martyrs). The first Concordance to the whole Bible was that of John Marbeck (1550). In the same year was published a translation by Walter Lynne of the Index Librorum of Bullinger, Conrad Pelican and others, under the title of A Briefe and a Compendious Table, in manor of a Concordance, openying the waye to the principall Histories of the whole Bible, etc. Alex. Cruden, whose own Concordance, the most adequate of all, was published in 1737, enumerates most of his predecessors in the intervening period. Cruden's personal history is a pathetic one. A recurring mental malady overshadowed his career; but his indomitable perseverance and fixity of purpose, joined with a clear idea of what he wished to accomplish, enabled him to overcome all obstacles, and produce a book for which the Christian world is grateful. The work is entitled A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, etc.; to which is added, a Concordance to the Books called Apocrypha. Mr. Spurgeon said regarding it, "Be sure you buy a genuine unabridged Cruden, and none of the modern substitutes, good as they may be at the price. .... You need only one; have none but the best." Many editions of this valuable book have been published. It no longer remains, however, the only authority, nor even the most complete and serviceable, though perhaps still the most convenient, for the purpose of the student. In 1873 was published the Analytical Concordance to the Bible by Robert Young, LL.D., to which an appendix has since been added. This bulky work contains "every word in alphabetical order, arranged under its Hebrew or Greek original; with the literal meaning of each and its pronunciation." It marks 30,000 various readings, and gives geographical and antiquarian notes. Yet more comprehensive is The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible by James Strong, LL.D. This includes the new feature of a comparative concordance of the Authorized and Revised (English) versions It embraces also condensed Dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek words, to which references are made from the English words by figures. It thus differs in plan from Young's, which gives the Hebrew and Greek words in the body of the concordance at the head of the passages coming under them. Lastly must be noticed the very valuable work published in the same year (1894) in America by J.B.R. Walker, Comprehensive Concordance, with an Introduction by Marshall Curtiss Hazard. It is stated to give 50,000 more passages than Cruden.ISBE Concordance.21

LITERATURE.ISBE Concordance.22

See articles on "Concordance" in the various Dictionaries and Encyclopedias; articles by Dr. Beard in Kitto's Encyclopedia (Volume I); and by Dr. C. R. Gregory in the New The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge Encyclopedia (Volume III); Preface to Cruden's complete Concordance, and Introduction by Hazard to Walker's Comprehensive Concordance.ISBE Concordance.23

James OrrISBE Concordance.24

Concourse

Concourse - kon'-kors (hamah, "to hum," "to make a noise"; sustrophe, "a turning" or "twisting together"): Hamah, usually translated by some word signifying "sound" is rendered "concourse" in Proverbs 1:21 (perhaps from the noise made by people thronging and talking together; compare 1 Kings 1:41, "uproar"), "She (wisdom) crieth in the chief place of concourse," the Revised Version, margin, Hebrew "at the head of the noisy (streets)"; sustrophe is translated "concourse" (Acts 19:40), a riotous crowd. Compare Judith 10:18.ISBE Concourse.2

Concubinage

Concubinage - kon-ku'-bi-naj.ISBE Concubinage.2

See FAMILY.ISBE Concubinage.3

Concupiscence

Concupiscence - kon-ku'-pi-sens (epithumia): Not used in the Revised Version (British and American), but in the King James Version, Romans 7:8; Colossians 3:5; 1 Thessalonians 4:5. The Greek noun, like the verb from which it comes, meaning "to yearn," "to long," "to have the heart set upon a thing," is determined in its moral quality by the source whence it springs or the object toward which it is directed. Thus, our Lord uses it to express the intensest desire of His soul (Luke 22:15). As a rule, when the object is not expressed, it refers to longing for that which God has forbidden, namely, lust. It is not limited to sexual desire, but includes all going forth of heart and will toward what God would not have us to have or be, as its use in the Septuagint of the Ten Commandments clearly shows, for "Thou shalt not covet" (Exodus 20:17).ISBE Concupiscence.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Concupiscence.3

Condemn; Condemnation

Condemn; Condemnation - kon-dem', kon-dem-na'-shun:ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.2

1. In the Old Testament: (1) The causative stem of rasha` "to declare (or make) wrong," "to condemn," whether in civil, ethical or religious relations. Taken in this sense the word needs no comment (Exodus 22:9; Deuteronomy 25:1; Job 40:8); "Who then can condemn?" (Job 34:29, the King James Version "make trouble").ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.3

(2) `anash, "to fine." "Condemned the land" (2 Chronicles 36:3 the King James Version; the King James Version margin "mulcted"; the Revised Version (British and American) "amerced"; the American Standard Revised Version "fined"); "wine of the condemned" (Amos 2:8; the Revised Version (British and American) "fined" (unjustly)).ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.4

(3) The active participle of shaphaT, "to judge." "From those that condemn his soul" (Psalms 109:31 the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "that judge his soul").ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.5

2. In the New Testament: The New Testament usage is much more complicated, both because of the greater number of Greek words rendered "condemn" and "condemnation," and because the King James Version translates the same word in several different ways, apparently with no rule whatever.ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.6

(1) The most important word is krino, "to judge." From it are a number of derivative verbs and nouns. the Revised Version (British and American) has rigidly excluded the harsh words "damn" and "damnation," substituting "judge," "condemn," "judgment," "condemnation." This is proper, since the word damn (Latin, damnare, "to inflict loss" upon a person, "to condemn"), and its derivatives has, in process of time, suffered degradation, so that in modern English it usually refers to eternal punishment. This special application of the word for some centuries ran side by side with the original meaning, but even as late as Wycliffe's version the word "damn" is usually employed in the sense of condemn, as in Job 9:20, "My mouth shall dampne me." It is even applied to the condemnation of Jesus by the chief priests and scribes (Mark 10:33). This degeneration of the word is perhaps due, as Bishop Sanderson says, "not so much to good acts as to bad manners." Krino is rendered uniformly "judge" by the Revised Version (British and American), even where the context. compels the thought of condemnation (John 3:17-18; 12:47; Acts 7:7; "might be damned," 2 Thessalonians 2:12 the King James Version; Romans 14:22; James 5:9).ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.7

(2) The more specific sense of condemn, however, is found in katakrino, "to judge one down" (Matthew 12:41-42; Mark 14:64): "is damned if he eat" (Romans 14:23; 1 Corinthians 11:32 the King James Version; the Revised Version (British and American) "condemned"). See also Mark 16:16; 2 Peter 2:6.ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.8

(3) For "condemnation" there is the noun krima, or krima (for accent see Thayer's Lexicon), in a forensic sense, "the sentence of the judge" (Luke 23:40; Matthew 23:14, omitted in the Revised Version (British and American); "condemnation of the devil" 1 Timothy 3:6; 5:12; Jude 1:4).ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.9

(4) Much stronger is katakrima, "condemnation" (Romans 5:16, 18; 8:1) with reference to the Divine judgment against sin.ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.10

(5) krisis, "the process of judgment," "tribunal" (John 3:19; 5:24), with reference to "the judgment brought by men upon themselves because of their rejection of Christ."ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.11

(6) A stronger word is the adjective autokatakritos, "self-condemned" (Titus 3:11; compare 1 John 3:20-21).ISBE Condemn; Condemnation.12

G. H. TreverISBE Condemn; Condemnation.13

Condescension, of Christ

Condescension, of Christ - kon-de-sen'-shun.ISBE Condescension, of Christ.2

See KENOSIS.ISBE Condescension, of Christ.3

Conduct

Conduct - kon'-dukt.ISBE Conduct.2

See ETHICS.ISBE Conduct.3

Conduit

Conduit - kon'-dit.ISBE Conduit.2

See CISTERN.ISBE Conduit.3

Coney

Coney - ko'-ni (shaphan (Leviticus 11:5; Deuteronomy 14:7; Psalms 104:18; Proverbs 30:26)): The word "coney" (formerly pronounced cooney) means "rabbit" (from Latin cuniculus). Shaphan is rendered in all four passages in the Septuagint choirogrullios, or "hedge-hog," but is now universally considered to refer to the Syrian hyrax, Procavia (or Hyrax) Syriaca, which in southern Palestine and Sinai is called in Arabic wabar, in northern Palestine and Syria Tabsun, and in southern Arabia shufun, which is etymologically closely akin to shaphan. The word "hyrax" (hurax) itself means "mouse" or "shrew-mouse" (compare Latin sorex), so that it seems to have been hard to find a name peculiar to this animal. In Leviticus 11:5 the Revised Version, margin, we find "rock badger," which is a translation of klip das, the rather inappropriate name given by the Boers to the Cape hyrax. The Syrian hyrax lives in Syria, Palestine and Arabia. A number of other species, including several that are arboreal, live in Africa. They are not found in other parts of the world. In size, teeth and habits the Syrian hyrax somewhat resembles the rabbit, though it is different in color, being reddish brown, and lacks the long hind legs of the rabbit. The similarity in dentition is confined to the large size of the front teeth and the presence of a large space between them and the back teeth. But whereas hares have a pair of front teeth on each jaw, the hyrax has one pair above and two below. TheseISBE Coney.2

teeth differ also in structure from those of the hare and rabbit, not having the persistent pulp which enables the rabbit's front teeth to grow continually as they are worn away. They do not hide among herbage like hares, nor burrow like rabbits, but live in holes or clefts of the rock, frequently in the faces of steep cliffs. Neither the hyrax nor the hare is a ruminant, as seems to be implied in Leviticus 11:5 and Deuteronomy 14:7, but their manner of chewing their food may readily have led them to be thought to chew the cud. The hyrax has four toes in front and three behind (the same number as in the tapir and in some fossil members of the horse family), all furnished with nails that are almost like hoofs, except the inner hind toes, which have claws. The hyraxes constitute a family of ungulates and, in spite of their small size, have points of resemblance to elephants or rhinoceroses, but are not closely allied to these or to any other known animals.ISBE Coney.3

The camel, the coney and the hare are in the list of unclean animals because they "chew the cud but divide not the hoof," but all three of these are eaten by the Arabs.ISBE Coney.4

The illustration is from a photograph of a group of conies in the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, prepared by Mr. Douglas Carruthers, who collected these specimens in a cliff in the neighborhood of Tyre. Specimens from the Dead Sea are redder than those from Syria.ISBE Coney.5

Alfred Ely DayISBE Coney.6

Confection; Confectionary

Confection; Confectionary - kon-fek'-shun, kon-fek'-shun-a-ri (roqach "perfume," "spice," raqqahah, feminine "perfumer"):ISBE Confection; Confectionary.2

(1) "Confection" is found in the King James Version only and but once "a confection after the art of the apothecary" (Exodus 30:35; the Revised Version (British and American) "perfume"); but the Revised Version (British and American) renders 1 Chronicles 9:30, "the confection (the King James Version "ointment") of the spices." It stands for something "made up," a mixture of perfumes or medicines, but never sweetmeats, as confection means with us.ISBE Confection; Confectionary.3

(2) Likewise a "confectionary" is a perfumer. This word, too, is found but once (1 Samuel 8:13), "He will take your daughters to be perfumers (the King James Version "confectionaries"), and to be cooks, and to be bakers."ISBE Confection; Confectionary.4

See PERFUME.ISBE Confection; Confectionary.5

George B. EagerISBE Confection; Confectionary.6

Confederate; Confederacy

Confederate; Confederacy - kon-fed'-er-at, kon-fed'-er-a-si: "Confederate" as an adjective in the sense of united or leagued is twice the translation of berith "covenant," in several instances translated "league" (Genesis 14:13, ba`al berith, "lord or master of a covenant," "an ally," "these were confederate with Abram"; compare Psalms 83:5; once of nuach, "to rest," "Syria is confederate with Ephraim" (Isaiah 7:2, the Revised Version, margin "resteth on Ephraim"; also 1 Maccabees 10:47).ISBE Confederate; Confederacy.2

As a noun "confederate" occurs in 1 Maccabees 10:16, summachos, "confederates" (1 Maccabees 8:20, 24, 31; 14:40; 15:17).ISBE Confederate; Confederacy.3

Confederacy, as a "league," occurs as the translation of berith, "the men of thy confederacy" (Obadiah 1:7); as a conspiracy it occurs in Isaiah 8:12 twice, as translation of qesher from qashar, "to bind": "Say ye not, a confederate." Compare 2 Samuel 15:12; 2 Kings 12:20, etc.ISBE Confederate; Confederacy.4

W. L. WalkerISBE Confederate; Confederacy.5

Confer; Conference

Confer; Conference - kon'-fer, kon'-ferens: The equivalent of three Greek words of different shades of meaning. In Galatians 1:16, prosanatithemi, had been used in classical writers for resorting to oracles (Lightfoot on Galatians 2:6; Ellicott on Galatians 1:16); hence, "to take counsel with," "to consult." In Acts 4:15, sumballo, "to compare views," "discuss"; and in Acts 25:12, sullaleo, "to talk together." Compare the single passage in the Old Testament (1 Kings 1:7).ISBE Confer; Conference.2

Confession

Confession - kon-fesh'-un (yadhah; homologeo, and their derivatives): The radical meaning is "acknowledgment," "avowal," with the implication of a change of conviction or of course of conduct on the part of the subject. In English "profession" (the King James Version 1 Timothy 6:12; Hebrews 3:1; 4:14), besides absence of the thought just suggested, emphasizes the publicity of the act. Confession, like its Greek equivalent, connotes, as its etymology shows (Latin, con; Greek, homou), that the act places one in harmony with others. It is the uniting in a statement that has previously been made by someone else. Of the two Greek words from the same root in the New Testament, the compound with the Greek preposition ek found, among other places, in Matthew 3:6; Acts 19:18; Romans 14:11; Philippians 2:11, implies that it has come from an inner impulse, i.e. it is the expression of a conviction of the heart. It is referred anthropopathically to God in Job 40:14, where Yahweh says to the patriarch sarcastically: "Then will I also confess of (unto) thee"; and in Revelation 3:5, where it means "to recognize" or "acknowledge."ISBE Confession.2

When man is said to confess or make confession, the contents of the confession are variously distinguished. All, however, may be grouped under two heads, confession of faith and confession of sin. Confessions of faith are public acknowledgments of fidelity to God, and to the truth through which God is revealed, as 1 Kings 8:33. They are declarations of unqualified confidence in Christ, and of surrender to His service; Matthew 10:32: "Every one .... who shall confess me before men." In Philippians 2:11, however, confession includes, alongside of willing, also unwilling, acknowledgment of the sovereignty of Jesus. The word confession stands also for everything contained in the Christian religion--"the faith" used in the objective and widest sense, in Hebrews 3:1; 4:14. In both these passages, the allusion is to the New Testament. The "High Priest of our confession" (Hebrews 3:1) is the High Priest, of whom we learn and with whom we deal in that new revelation, which in that epistle is contrasted with the old.ISBE Confession.3

Confessions of sins are also of various classes: (1) To God alone. Wherever there is true repentance for sin, the penitent freely confesses his guilt to Him, against whom he has sinned. This is described in Psalms 32:3-6; compare 1 John 1:9; Proverbs 28:13. Such confession may be made either silently, or, as in Daniel 9:19, orally; it may be general, as in Psalms 51:1-19, or particular, as when some special sin is recognized; it may even extend to what has not been discovered, but which is believed to exist because of recognized inner depravity (Psalms 19:12), and thus include the state as well as the acts of sin (Romans 7:18). (2) To one's neighbor, when he has been wronged (Luke 17:4): "If he sin against thee seven times in the day, and seven times turn again to thee, saying, I repent; thou shalt forgive him." It is to this form of c. that James refers (Luke 5:16): "Confess .... your sins one to another"; compare Matthew 5:23 f. (3) To a spiritual adviser or minister of the word, such as the c. of David to Nathan (2 Samuel 12:13), of the multitudes to John in the wilderness (Matthew 3:6), of the Ephesians to Paul (Acts 19:18). This c. is a general acknowledgment of sinfulness, and enters into an enumeration of details only when the conscience is particularly burdened. (4) To the entire church, where some crime has created public scandal. As "secret sins are to be rebuked secretly, and public sins publicly," in the apostolic age, where there was genuine penitence for a notorious offense, the acknowledgment was as public as the deed itself. An illustration of this is found in the well-known case at Corinth (compare 1 Corinthians 5:3 ff with 2 Corinthians 2:6 f).ISBE Confession.4

For auricular confession in the sense of the medieval and Roman church, there is no authority in Holy Scripture. It is traceable to the practice of examining those who were about to make a public confession of some notorious offense, and of giving advice concerning how far the circumstances of the sin were to be announced; an expedient that was found advisable, since as much injury could be wrought by injudicious publishing of details in the confession as by the sin itself. The practice once introduced for particular cases was in time extended to all cases; and the private confession of sin was demanded by the church as a condition of the absolution, and made an element of penitence, which was analyzed into contrition, confession and satisfaction. See the Examen Concilii Tridentini (lst edition, 1565) of Dr. Martin Chemnitz, superintendent of Brunswick, for a thorough exegetical and historical discussion of this entire subject. On the historical side, see also Henry Charles Lea, History of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church (3 volumes, Philadelphia, 1896).ISBE Confession.5

H. E. JacobsISBE Confession.6

Confidence

Confidence - kon'-fi-dens (baTach, and forms, kecel; parrhesia; peitho, pepoithesis, hupostasis): The chief Hebrew word translated "confidence" (baTach, and its forms) means, perhaps, radically, "to be open," showing thus what originated the idea of "confidence"; where there was nothing hidden a person felt safe; it is very frequently rendered "trust." In Psalms 118:8-9 we have "It is better to take refuge in Yahweh than to put confidence in princes," and in Psalms 65:5, "O God of our salvation, thou that art the confidence (mibhTach) of all the ends of the earth." MibhTach is translated "confidence" in Job 18:14; 31:24; Proverbs 21:22, etc.ISBE Confidence.2

Kecel ("firmness," "stoutness") is rendered "confidence" in Proverbs 3:26, and kiclah in Job 4:6; peitho ("to persuade") is translated "confidence" in 2 Corinthians 2:3; Galatians 5:10, etc.; pepoithesis, in 2 Corinthians 1:15; 8:22, etc.; hupostasis ("what stands under"), in 2 Corinthians 11:17; Hebrews 3:14; 2 Corinthians 9:4; parrhesia ("out-spokenness," "boldness") is invariably translated in the Revised Version (British and American) "boldness" (Acts 28:31; Hebrews 3:6; 4:16; 10:35; 1 John 2:28; 3:21; 5:14); tharseo or tharrheo ("to have good courage") is so translated in the Revised Version (British and American), "being therefore always of good courage" (2 Corinthians 5:6); "I am of good courage concerning you" (2 Corinthians 7:16), the King James Version "confident" and "confidence."ISBE Confidence.3

Revised Version has "confidence" for "hope" (Job 8:14); for "assurance" (Isaiah 32:17); for "trust" (2 Corinthians 3:4); for "same confident boasting" (2 Corinthians 9:4); "is confident" for "trusted" (Job 40:23); "to have confidence" for "thinketh that he hath whereof he might trust" (Philippians 3:4); "confidently" for "constantly" (Acts 12:15); "confidently affirm" for "affirm" (1 Timothy 1:7); conversely, we have for "his confidence" (Job 18:14), "wherein he trusteth," for "with confidence" (Ezekiel 28:26) "securely therein."ISBE Confidence.4

The Bible teaches the value of confidence (Isaiah 30:15; Hebrews 10:35), but neither in "gold" (Job 31:24), nor in man, however great (Psalms 118:8-9; Jeremiah 17:5), nor in self (Proverbs 14:16; Philippians 3:3), but in God (Psalms 65:5; Proverbs 3:26; 14:26), as revealed in Christ (Ephesians 3:12; 1 John 5:13-14).ISBE Confidence.5

W. L. WalkerISBE Confidence.6

Confirm; Confirmation

Confirm; Confirmation - kon-furm, konfer-ma'-shun: In the Old Testament represented by several Hebrew words, generally with reference to an increase of external strength, as "c. the feeble knees" (Isaiah 35:3); "c. the kingdom" (2 Kings 15:19); "c. inheritance" (Psalms 68:9). In the New Testament, this external, objective sense is expressed by bebaioo, as in Mark 16:20; Romans 15:8. The strengthening of mind, purpose, conviction, i.e. the inner or subjective sense (Acts 14:22; 32, 41) corresponds to episterizo. Used also of ratifying or making valid (kuroo) a covenant (Galatians 3:15). The noun is used in the second sense (Hebrews 6:16; Philippians 1:7). Confirmation, the rite, in some denominations, of admission to the full communion of the church, which the Roman church has elevated to the place of a sacrament, has only ecclesiastical, but no Scriptural, authority. It is grounded, however, in the Scriptural precedent of the laying on of hands after baptism.ISBE Confirm; Confirmation.2

See HANDS, IMPOSITION,LAYING ON OF .ISBE Confirm; Confirmation.3

H. E. JacobsISBE Confirm; Confirmation.4

Confiscation

Confiscation - kon-fis-ka'-shun.ISBE Confiscation.2

See PUNISHMENTS.ISBE Confiscation.3

Conflict

Conflict - kon'-flikt (agon, "contest," "fight"): In Philippians 1:30, "having the same c. which ye saw in me," and Colossians 2:1 the King James Version; 1 Thessalonians 2:2 (the King James Version "contention"); athlesis (literally, "combat in the public games"), in Hebrews 10:32 (the King James Version "fight").ISBE Conflict.2

See also AGONY.ISBE Conflict.3

Conform; Conformable

Conform; Conformable - kon-form', kon-form'-a-b'-l (summorphoo "to become or be like," or "of the same form"): Indicating an inner change of nature, working into the outward life (Romans 8:29; Philippians 3:10, 21); while suschematizo, "fashioned according to" (Romans 12:21 the Revised Version (British and American), the King James Version. "conformed"), refers to that which is external.ISBE Conform; Conformable.2

Confound

Confound - kon-found': The physical origin of spiritual terms is well illustrated by the principal Hebrew words for "confounded" (rendered also "ashamed," etc.); bosh, is "to become pale" (2 Kings 19:26; Job 6:20; Psalms 83:17; 129:5 the King James Version; Isaiah 19:9, etc.); chapher, "to become red" (Psalms 35:4; Isaiah 1:29; 24:23, "the moon shall be confounded," Micah 3:7); yabhash, "to be dried up" (Jeremiah 46:24 the King James Version; Jeremiah 48:1, 20 the King James Version; Jeremiah 50:2 the King James Version; Zechariah 10:5); kalam, "to blush" (Psalms 69:6 the King James Version; Isaiah 41:11, etc.). In Genesis 11:7, 9, of the confusion of tongues, the word is balal, "to mix," "mingle." In Jeremiah 1:17 the King James Version it is chathath, "to bring or put down."ISBE Confound.2

In New Testament, kataischuno, "to put to shame" (1 Corinthians 1:27 the King James Version; 1 Peter 2:6 the King James Version); and sugchuno, "to pour together," "bewilder' " (Acts 2:6; 9:22). the Revised Version (British and American) frequently gives "ashamed" and "put to shame" instead of "confounded."ISBE Confound.3

W. L. WalkerISBE Confound.4

Confusion

Confusion - kon-fu'-zhun (bosheth, "shame, paleness," kelimmah, "blushing," tohu; akatastasia, sugchusis): In the Old Testament bosheth (1 Samuel 20:30; Psalms 109:29 the King James Version) and kelimmah (Psalms 44:15; Isaiah 30:3) are the words most frequently translated "confusion"; tohu, "wastiness," "emptiness" is so translated (Isaiah 24:10; 34:11; 41:29), also qalon, "lightness," "contempt" (Job 10:15 = ignominy, the American Standard Revised Version) and tebhel, "profanation" (Leviticus 18:23; 20:12); ra`ash, "shaking," "trembling," rendered "confused" in Isaiah 9:5 the King James Version; compare the Revised Version (British and American). Greek akatashatasia, "instability" is translated "confusion" (1 Corinthians 14:33; James 3:16); sugchusis, "a pouring out together" (Acts 19:29). In Wisdom of Solomon 14:26, "changing of kind" (the King James Version) is rendered "confusion of sex."ISBE Confusion.2

W. L. WalkerISBE Confusion.3

Confusion of Tongues

Confusion of Tongues - See BABEL, TOWER OF; TONGUES, CONFUSION OFISBE Confusion of Tongues.2

Congregation

Congregation - kon-gre-ga'-shun (qahal, `edhah).ISBE Congregation.2

1. Terms Employed: These two words rendered by "congregation" or "assembly" are used apparently without any difference of sense. They appear to include an assembly of the whole people or any section that might be present on a given occasion. Indeed, sometimes the idea appears to correspond closely to that conveyed by "horde," or even by "crowd." `Edhah is once used of bees (Judges 14:8). It has been sought to distinguish the two words by means of Leviticus 4:13, "if the whole `edhah of Israel err, and the thing be hid from the eyes of the qahal." The qahal would then be the smaller body representing the whole `edhah, but the general usage is not favorable to this view (compare e.g. Exodus 12:19, "cutting off from the `edhah of Israel," with Numbers 19:20, "cutting off from the qahal"). The idea denoted by these words is said by Wellhausen to be "foreign to Hebrew antiquity," though it "runs through the Priestly Code from beginning to end" (Prolegomena 78). Yet it is Deuteronomy that presents us with laws excluding certain classes from the qahal, and the word is also found in Genesis 49:6; Numbers 22:4 (the Revised Version (British and American) "multitude"); Deuteronomy 5:22; 9:10; 31:30; Joshua 8:35; 1 Samuel 17:47; 1 Kings 8:14; Micah 2:5, and other early passages, while `edhah occurs in 1 Kings 12:20 (see further, Eerdmans, Das Buch Exodus, 80 f). On the other hand taste and euphony appear to be responsible for the choice of one or other of the words in many cases. Thus the Chronicler uses qahal frequently, but `edhah only once (2 Chronicles 5:6 = 1 Kings 8:5).ISBE Congregation.3

2. Legal Provisions: Moses provided for the summoning of the congregation by trumpets (Numbers 10:2-8). For the sin offering to be brought if the whole congregation erred, see Leviticus 4:13-21.ISBE Congregation.4

Deuteronomy 23:1-8 (in Hebrews 2:1-18 through Hebrews 9:1-28) excludes bastards, Ammonites and Moabites from the assembly, even to the tenth generation, while Edomites and Egyptians were admitted in the third. Those who suffer from certain physical defects are also excluded.ISBE Congregation.5

3. Other Terms: One other word must be noted, mo`edh. It occurs often in the phrase 'ohel mo`edh ("tent of meeting"; see TABERNACLE). But in Numbers 16:2 we find it used of certain princes who were "men of renown called to the assembly."ISBE Congregation.6

For atsereth, rendered by the Revised Version (British and American) "solemn assembly", see FEASTS. On miqra', see CONVOCATION.ISBE Congregation.7

Harold M. WienerISBE Congregation.8

Congregation, Mount of

Congregation, Mount of - (har-mo`edh Isaiah 14:13): The prophet has depicted the excitement caused in Sheol by the descent of the once mighty king of Babylon into the world of shades, and now himself points the contrast between the monarch's former haughty boastings and his present weak and hopeless condition: "Thou saidst in thy heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God; and I will sit upon the mount of congregation, in the uttermost parts of the north." Instead he is brought down "to the uttermost parts of the pit" (Isaiah 14:15). By the "mount of congregation" (meeting or assembly) is evidently meant the fancied Olympus of the gods on some lofty northern height. The king vaunted that he would make his abode with the gods in heaven; now he is cast down to the depths of Sheol.ISBE Congregation, Mount of.2

James OrrISBE Congregation, Mount of.3

Coniah

Coniah - ko-ni'-a (konyahu, "Jah is creating"): A form of the name Jehoiachin, found in Jeremiah 22:24, 28; 37:1.ISBE Coniah.2

See JEHOIACHIN.ISBE Coniah.3

Cononiah

Cononiah - kon-o-ni'a.ISBE Cononiah.2

See CONANIAH.ISBE Cononiah.3

Conqueror

Conqueror - kon'-ker-er: Known only in the compound verb (hupernikomen, Romans 8:37): A usual meaning of the preposition in composition is "above all measure"; hence, "more than conquerors," the Revised Version (British and American), the King James Version. The comparison is to the completeness of the victory. Others may place their enemies in subjection; those here mentioned master not only their foes, but themselves. Others destroy their foes and their resources; while those who are "more than conquerors" convert foes into means of still farther promoting the interests for which they struggle (Romans 3:3-5). Nor is the victory external and transient, but internal and permanent.ISBE Conqueror.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Conqueror.3

Conscience

Conscience - kon'-shens (he suneidesis):ISBE Conscience.2

I. SEQUENT CONSCIENCEISBE Conscience.3

1. JudicialISBE Conscience.4

2. PunitiveISBE Conscience.5

3. PredictiveISBE Conscience.6

4. SocialISBE Conscience.7

II. ANTECEDENT CONSCIENCEISBE Conscience.8

III. INTUITIONAL AND ASSOCIATIONAL THEORIESISBE Conscience.9

IV. THE EDUCATION OF CONSCIENCEISBE Conscience.10

V. HISTORY AND LITERATUREISBE Conscience.11

1. Earlier ViewsISBE Conscience.12

2. Reformation and AfterISBE Conscience.13

I. Sequent Conscience. The aspect of conscience earliest noticed in literature and most frequently referred to at all times is what is called the Sequent Conscience--that is to say, it follows action.ISBE Conscience.14

1. Judicial: This is judicial. No sooner is a decision formed than there ensues a judgment favorable or adverse, a sentence of guilty or not guilty. Conscience has often been compared to a court of law, in which there are culprit, judge, witnesses and jury; but these are all in the subject's own breast, and are in fact himself.ISBE Conscience.15

2. Punitive: It is punitive. In the individual's own breast are not only the figures of justice already mentioned, but the executioner as well; for, on the back of a sentence of condemnation or acquittal, there immediately follows the pain of a wounded or the satisfaction of an approving conscience; and of all human miseries or blisses this is the most poignant. Especially has the remorse of an evil conscience impressed the human imagination, in such instances as Cain and Judas, Saul and Herod; and the poets, those knowers of human nature, have found their most moving themes in the delineation of this aspect of human experience. The ancient poets represented the terrors of conscience under the guise of the Erinyes or Furies, who, with swift, silent, unswerving footstep, tracked the criminal and pulled him down, while Shakespeare, in such dramas as Macbeth and Richard the Third, has burned the same lessons into the imagination of all readers of his works. The satisfaction of a good conscience may stamp itself on the habitual serenity of one face, and the accusations of an evil conscience may impart a hunted and sinister expression to another (compare Wisdom of Solomon 17:11).ISBE Conscience.16

3. Predictive: It is predictive. There is no instinct in the soul of man more august than the anticipation of something after death--of a tribunal at which the whole of life will be revised and retribution awarded with perfect justice according to the deeds done in the body. It is this which imparts to death its solemnity; we instinctively know that we are going to our account. And such great natural instincts cannot be false.ISBE Conscience.17

4. Social: It is social. Not only does a man's own conscience pass sentence on his conduct, but the consciences of others pass sentence on it too; and to this may be due a great intensification of the consequent sensations. Thus, a crime may lie hidden in the memory, and the pain of its guilt may be assuaged by the action of time, when suddenly and unexpectedly it is found out and exposed to the knowledge of all; and, only when the force of the public conscience breaks forth on the culprit, driving him from society, does he feel his guilt in all its magnitude. The "Day of Judgment" (which see), as it is represented in Scripture, is an application of this principle on a vast scale; for there the character and conduct of everyone will be submitted to the conscience of all. On the other hand, a friend may be to a man a second conscience, by which his own conscience is kept alive and alert; and this approval from without may, in some cases, be, even more than the judgment within, an encouragement to everything that is good or a protection against temptation.ISBE Conscience.18

II. Antecedent Conscience. From the Sequent is distinguished the Antecedent Conscience, which designates a function of this faculty preceding moral decision or action. When the will stands at the parting of the ways, seeing clearly before it the right course and the wrong, conscience commands to strike into the one and forbids to choose the other. This is its imperative; and--to employ the language of Kant--it is a categorical imperative. What conscience commands may be apparently against our interests, and it may be completely contrary to our inclinations; it may be opposed to the advice of friends or to the solicitations of companions; it may contradict the decrees of principalities and powers or the voices of the multitude; yet conscience in no way withdraws or modifies its claim. We may fail to obey, giving way to passion or being overborne by the allurements of temptation; but we know that we ought to obey; it is our duty; and this is a sublime and sacred word. The great crises of life arise when conscience is issuing one command and self-interest or passion or authority another, and the question has to be decided which of the two is to be obeyed. The interpreters of human life have known how to make use of such moments, and many of the most memorable scenes in literature are of this nature; but the actual history of mankind has also been dignified with numerous instances in which confessors and martyrs, standing on the same ground, have faced death rather than contravene the dictates of the authority within; and there never passes an hour in which the eye of the All-seeing does not behold someone on earth putting aside the bribes or self-interest or the menaces of authority and paying tribute to conscience by doing the right and taking the consequences.ISBE Conscience.19

III. Intuitional and Associational Theories. Up to this point there is little difficulty or difference of opinion; but now we come to a point at which very differing views emerge. It was remarked above, that when anyone stands at the parting of the ways, seeing clearly the right course and the wrong, conscience imperatively commands him which to choose and which to avoid; but how does anyone know which of the two alternatives is the right and which the wrong? Does conscience still suffice here, or is he dependent on another faculty? Here the Intuitional and the Associational, or--speaking broadly--the Scotch and the English, the German and the French schools of ethics diverge, those on the one side holding that conscience has still essential guidance to give, while those on the other maintain that the guidance must now be undertaken by other faculties. The Sensational or Experimental school holds that we are dependent on the authority of society or on our own estimate of the consequences of actions, while the opposite school teaches that in the conscience there is a clear revelation of certain moral laws, approving certain principles of action and disapproving others. The strong point of the former view is the diversity which has existed among human beings in different ages and in different latitudes as to what is right and what is wrong. What was virtuous in Athens might be sinful in Jerusalem; what is admired as heroism in Japan may be despised as fool-hardiness in Britain. To this it may be replied, first, that the diversity has been greatly exaggerated; the unanimity of the human conscience under all skies being greater than is allowed by philosophers of this school. "Let any plain, honest man," says Butler, "before he engages in any course of action, ask himself, Is this I am going about right, or is it wrong? Is it good, or is it evil? and I do not in the least doubt but that this question will be answered agreeably to truth and virtue by almost any fair man in almost any circumstances." Then, there are many moral judgments supposed to be immediate verdicts of conscience which are really logical inferences from the utterances of this faculty and are liable to all the fallacies by which reasoning in any department of human affairs is beset. It is only for the major premise, not for the conclusion, that conscience is responsible. The strong point of the Intuitional school, on the other hand, is the power and right of the individual to break away from the habits of society, and, in defiance of the commands of authority or the voices of the multitude, to follow a course of his own. When he does so, is it a logical conclusion as to the consequences of action he is obeying, or a higher intuition? When, for example, Christianity announced the sinfulness of fornication in opposition to the laxity of Greece and Rome, was it an argument about consequences with which she operated successfully, or an instinct of purity which she divined at the back of the actions and opinions of heathendom? The lettering of the moral law may have to be picked out and cleansed from the accumulations of time, but the inscription is there all the same.ISBE Conscience.20

IV. The Education of Conscience. It may be, however, that a more exact analysis of the antecedent conscience is requisite. Between the categorical imperative, which commands to choose the right path and avoid the wrong, and the indicative, which declares that this is the right way and that the wrong, there ought perhaps to be assumed a certainty that one of the alternative ways is right and must be pursued at all hazards, while the other is wrong and must be abandoned at whatever cost. This perception, that moral distinctions exist, separate from each other as heaven and hell, is the peculiarity of conscience; but it does not exclude the necessity for taking time to ascertain, in every instance, which of the alternatives has the one character and which the other, or for employing a great variety of knowledge to make this sure. Those who would limit conscience to the faculty which utters the major premises of moral reasoning are wont to hold that it can never err and does not admit of being educated; but such a use of the term is too remote from common usage, and there must be room left for the conscience to enlighten itself by making acquaintance with such objective standards as the character of God, the example of Christ, and the teaching of Scripture, as well as with the maxims of the wise and the experience of the good.ISBE Conscience.21

Another question of great interest about the conscience is, whether it involves an intuition of God. When it is suffering the pain of remorse, who is it that inflicts the punishment? Is it only the conscience itself? Or is man, in such experiences aware of the existence of a Being outside of and above himself? When the will is about to act, it receives the command to choose the right and refuse the wrong; but who issues this command? Is it only itself, or does the imperative come with a sanction and solemnity betokening a higher origin? Conscience is an intuition of moral law--the reading, so to speak, of a luminous writing, which hangs out there, on the bosom of Nature--but who penned that writing? It used to be thought that the word Conscience implied, in its very structure, a reference to God, meaning literally, "knowledge along with another," the other being God. Though this derivation be uncertain, many think that it exactly expresses the truth. There are few people with an ethical experience of any depth who have not sometimes been overwhelmingly conscious of the approval or disapproval of an unseen Being; and, if there be any trustworthy argument for the existence of a Deity, prior to supernatural revelation, this is where it is to be found.ISBE Conscience.22

V. History and Literature. Only a few indications of history can be given here.ISBE Conscience.23

1. Earlier Views: The conscience, at least the sequent conscience, was identified in the ancient world, and the rise of a doctrine on the subject belongs to the period when the human mind, being shut out from public activity through political changes, was thrown back upon itself and began to watch closely its own symptoms. The word has a specially prominent place in the philosophical writings of Cicero. Strange to say, it does not occur in the Old Testament; but, though not the name, the thing appears there frequently enough. On the very first page of revelation, the voice of God is heard calling among the trees of the garden (Genesis 3:8); and, in the very next incident, the blood of Abel cries out to heaven from the ground (Genesis 4:10). In the New Testament the word occurs with tolerable frequency, especially in the speeches (Acts 24:16, etc.) and writings of Paul (Romans 2:15; 9:1; 13:5; 1 Corinthians 6:7-12, etc.); and this might have been expected to secure for it a prominent place in the doctrine of the church. But this did not immediately take effect, although Chrysostom already speaks of Conscience and Nature as two books in which the human mind can read of God, previous to supernatural revelation. In the Middle Ages the conscience received from two sources so much stimulation that both thing and name were certain to come into greater prominence in the speculations of the schools. The one of these influences was the rise of Monasticism, which, driving human beings into solitude, made the movements of their own minds the objects of everlasting study to themselves; and the other was the practice of auricular confession, which became, especially to many of the inmates of the houses of religion, the most interesting business of life; because, in order to meet the confessor, they scanned every thought and weighed every scruple, becoming adepts at introspection and self-discipline. Thus it came to pass that ethics took the form of Cases of Conscience, the priest having to train himself, or to be trained by professors and through books, to be able to answer every query submitted to him in the confessional. The ripest fruit of this method appears in the Summa of Aquinas, who discusses elaborately the doctrine of conscience, dividing it into two parts--synderesis (from sunteresis) and conscientia--the one of which supplies the major premises and cannot err, while the other draws the inferences therefrom and is liable to make mistakes. The Mystics identified the synderesis as the point in the spirit of man at which it can be brought into contact and connection with the Spirit of God.ISBE Conscience.24

2. Reformation and After: At the Reformation the conscience was much in the mouths of men, both because the terrors of conscience formed a preparation for comprehending justification by faith and because, in appearing before principalities and powers in vindication of their action, the Reformers took their stand on conscience, as Luther did so memorably at the Diet of Worms; and the assertion of the rights of conscience has ever since been a conspicuous testimony of Protestantism; whereas Romanists, especially as represented by the Jesuits, have treated the conscience as a feeble and ignorant thing, requiring to be led by authority--that is, by themselves. The forms of medievalism long clung even to Protestant literature on this subject. It may not be surprising to find a High Churchman like Jeremy Taylor, in his Ductor Dubitantium, discussing ethics as a system of cases of conscience, but it is curious to find a Puritan like Baxter (in his Christian Directory), and a Scottish Presbyterian like David Dickson (in his Therapeutica Sacra) doing the same. Deism in England and the Enlightenment in Germany magnified the conscience, to which they ascribed such a power of revealing God as made any further revelation unnecessary; but the practical effect was a secularization and vulgarization of the general mind; and it was against these rather than the system which had produced them that Butler in England and Kant in Germany had to raise the standard of a spiritual view of life. The former said of the conscience that, if it had power as it had right, it would absolutely govern the world; and Kant's sublime saying is well known, at the close of his great work on Ethics: "Two things fill the soul with ever new and growing wonder and reverence, the oftener and the longer reflection continues to occupy itself with them--the starry heavens above and the moral law within." The rise of an Associational and Developmental Philosophy in England, represented by such powerful thinkers as the Mills, father and son, Professor Bain and Herbert Spencer, tended to dissipate the halo surrounding the conscience, by representing it as merely an emotional equivalent for the authority of law and the claims of custom, so stamped on the mind by the experience of generations that, its earthly source forgotten, it came to be attributed to supernatural powers. But this school was antagonized with success by such thinkers as Martineau and T. H. Green. R. Rothe regarded conscience as a term too popular and of too variable signification to be of much use in philosophical speculation; but most of the great succession of writers on Christian ethics who followed him have treated it seriously; Dorner especially recognizing its importance, and Newman Smyth bestowing on it a thoroughly modern treatment. Among German works on the subject that of Gass, which contains an appendix on the history of the term synderesis, is deserving of special attention; that by Kahler is unfinished, as is also the work in English by Robertson; The Christian Conscience by Davison is slight and popular. Weighty discussions will be found in two books on Moral Philosophy--the Handbook of Calderwood, and the Ethics of Mezes. But there is abundance of room for a great monograph on the subject, which would treat conscience in a comprehensive manner as the subjective standard of conduct, formed by progressive familiarity with the objective standards as well as by practice in accordance with its own authority and with the will of God.ISBE Conscience.25

James StalkerISBE Conscience.26

Consecrate; Consecration

Consecrate; Consecration - kon'-se-krat, kon-se-kra'-shun.ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.2

1. In the Old Testament: In the Old Testament for several Hebrew words of different meanings:ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.3

(1) charam: "I will consecrate (the Revised Version (British and American) "devote") their gain unto the Lord," i.e. the spoil of the nations shall be dedicated to the service of Yahweh (Micah 4:13).ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.4

See BAN; CURSE.ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.5

(2) nazar, nezer (Numbers 6:7, 9, 12; the Revised Version (British and American) "separate").ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.6

See NAZIRITE.ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.7

(3) qadhesh: "to be set apart," or "to be holy": of Aaron and his sons (Exodus 28:3; 30:30; the Revised Version (British and American) "sanctify"). The silver and gold and brass and iron of the banned city of Jericho are "consecrated" things (the Revised Version (British and American) "holy") unto the Lord (Joshua 6:19); of the priests (2 Chronicles 26:18); of sacrifices (2 Chronicles 29:33; 31:6; Ezra 3:5).ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.8

See HOLINESS.ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.9

(4) mille' yadh, literally, "to fill the hand"; and substantive plural millu'im, a peculiar idiom used frequently and generally for the installation of a priest into his office; and substantive for the installation offerings which were probably put into the priest's hands to symbolize his admission into office; hence, the phrase, "and thou shalt consecrate Aaron and his sons" (Exodus 29:9; so Exodus 28:41; 29:29:Exodus 33:1-23, 15; 32:29; Leviticus 8:33; 16:32; 21:10; Numbers 3:3; Judges 17:5, 12; 2 Chronicles 29:31); of Jeroboam's non-Levitical priesthood (1 Kings 13:33; 2 Chronicles 13:9); of the altar (Ezekiel 43:26) and of those who contributed to build the temple (1 Chronicles 29:5). Subst. of an act of installation (Leviticus 7:37; 8:33), and of installation offerings (Exodus 29:22, 26-27, 31; Leviticus 8:22, 28-29, 31).ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.10

2. In the New Testament: In the New Testament teleioo, "to make perfect" (Hebrews 7:28; the Revised Version (British and American) "perfected"); egkainizo, "to make new" (Hebrews 10:20; the Revised Version (British and American) "dedicated").ISBE Consecrate; Consecration.11

T. ReesISBE Consecrate; Consecration.12

Consent

Consent - kon-sent': The verb implies compliance with the guidance and direction of another, and, therefore, a secondary and subordinate relation of approval, sympathy and concurrence on the part of the one who consents. He does not take the initiative, but yields to what the principal proposes. The phrase ek sumphonou, "by consent," means "by mutual agreement" (1 Corinthians 7:5), both parties concerned being placed on an equality. "With one consent" (Zephaniah 3:9, Hebrew "with one shoulder"; Luke 14:18) suggests, although it does not necessarily imply, the result of deliberation and consultation; it may have no other force than that of unanimity.ISBE Consent.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Consent.3

Consider

Consider - kon-sid'-er: In the New Testament the force of the word is brought out most vividly in Matthew 6:26 (katamanthano), where it means to "examine closely," as though the observer had to bend down for this purpose, and in Luke 12:27; Hebrews 10:24 (katanoeo, to "observe well"), while in Hebrews 13:7 the anatheoreo, "look up toward" or "look again at" is consistent with the reverential regard commended in the context. Used in the Old Testament for a variety of Hebrew terms, signifying inspecting (Proverbs 31:16), examining (Leviticus 13:13), giving serious thoughts to (Psalms 77:5 ; Isaiah 1:3), it often means little more than "see" or "behold" (Psalms 8:3; 9:13).ISBE Consider.2

H. E. JacobsISBE Consider.3

Consist

Consist - kon-sist' (sunistemi): To stand together, exist, subsist (Colossians 1:17, "in him all things consist," i.e. the continuance of the universe is dependent upon His support and administration). In Luke 12:15, it translates the verb eimi, "to be," to express the thought that wealth is only an accident, not an essential to the highest ideal of life.ISBE Consist.2

Consolation

Consolation - kon-so-la'-shun (paraklesis): "Consolation of Israel" (Luke 2:25), refers to the fulfillment of the promises in Isaiah 40:1 ff. See COMFORT. "Son of consolation" (Acts 4:36 the King James Version and the American Revised Version, margin).ISBE Consolation.2

See BARNABAS.ISBE Consolation.3

Consort

Consort - kon-sort' (proskleroo, "to allot," Acts 17:4). The verb may be either in the middle or passive voice. the Revised Version (British and American), the King James Version, and Luther's German translation regard it as middle, and render it: "cast their lots with," "associated," "united with." In advocacy of the passive, see Alford's Greek Testament, proposing: "were added," as if by lot, the allotment eing determined by God who gave them the Holy Spirit directing their choice. The English has the Latin for "lot" as its base.ISBE Consort.2

Conspiracy

Conspiracy - kon-spir'-a-si.ISBE Conspiracy.2

See CONFEDERACY .ISBE Conspiracy.3

Constant; Constantly

Constant; Constantly - kon'-stant, kon'-stant-li: In 1 Chronicles 28 (chazaq) meaning "firm," "strong." In Proverbs 21:28 the adverb ("constantly") of the King James Version is replaced in the American Standard Revised Version by "shall speak so as to endure," the English Revised Version "unchallenged." the Revised Version (British and American) gives "confidently" for the King James Version "constantly" in Acts 12:15; Titus 3:8.ISBE Constant; Constantly.2

Constellations

Constellations - kon-ste-la'-shuns (kecilim, literally, "Orions").ISBE Constellations.2

See ASTRONOMY, sec. II, 11.ISBE Constellations.3

Constrain

Constrain - kon-stran': Generally in the sense of pressing urgently (2 Kings 4:8; Luke 24:29; Acts 16:15), to impel or carry away (2 Corinthians 5:14); sometimes to be compelled of necessity (Job 32:18; Acts 28:19; compare Galatians 6:12).ISBE Constrain.2

See COMPEL.ISBE Constrain.3