PRIMASISUS (d. 560) of Hadrumetum, primate of Byzacene in North Africa, achieved his fame primarily through his commentary on the Apocalypse. ^{1Primasii Commentaria super Apocalypsim B. Joannis in Migne, PL, vol. 68, cols. 794-936. His work was first printed by Eucharius Cervicornus of Cologne in 1535, but a better and more complete edition is that of Basel in 1544.} This work is of great importance, because it contains the pre-Cyprian Latin text of the Apocalypse of the early African church, and is of greatest help in reconstructing the highly influential commentary of Tichonius. Furthermore, Primasius is one of the important links in the chain of commentators on the Apocalypse, who has influenced Autpertus, Alcuin, and the Haymo commentaries in later centuries. (See diagram on page 545.)PFF1 546.1

From the viewpoint of exegesis the contribution of Primasius is not outstanding. To a large extent he copied Tichonius, as he considered his writings a piece of treasure adrift. Tichonius had been a Donatist, and was therefore a heretic in his eyes. Hence he purged Tichonius’ commentary of all Donatist elements, and presented it in an orthodox ecclesiastical garb.PFF1 546.2

Primasius accepts the recapitulation theory and also follows Augustine in the exposition of Revelation 20. But he deviates from Tichonius in some matters, and some historical explanations reappear. For instance, the Two Witnesses of Revelation 11:3 are considered to be Elijah and Enoch, preaching repentance among the Jews. Antichrist comes from Dan. ^{2Primasius. Commentaria super Apocalypsim, in Migne, PL, vol. 68, col. 867. (Since the writers cited briefly for this period are probably accessible only in the Migne collection, the notes here given include only the page and the column references of that edition.)} And in the explanation of chapter 13 we find the expectation of a personal Antichrist. ^{3Ibid., cols. 878, 879.} The second beast of Revelation 13 is held as related to Simon Magus, and the number of the beast, accord ing to Primasius, refers to the number of days during which the Antichrist will persecute the church. By a singular method of computing he arrives at 1,225 days. ^{4Ibid., cols. 884 ff.; see also W. Bousset, Die Offenbarung Johannis, p. 66.} So Primasius is important because he constitutes the link between Tichonius and a number of later commentators during the Middle Ages.PFF1 546.3

2. AUTPERTUS COMPEND OF PREVIOUS EXPOSITIONS

AMBROSIUS AUTPERTUS, sometimes called Anspertus or Ansbert (d. c. 778), distinguished monk of the Benedictine order, was born in southern France and died in southern Italy. He wrote a voluminous work on the Apocalypse ^{5The complete commentary is found in La Bigne, Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum, vol. 13, pp. 403-657. The editor in Migne speaks of the ten books of the commentary on Revelation by Autpertus (Migne, PL, vol. 89, cols. 1265, 1266), but seems not to be certain Berengaudns, (Migne, PL, vol. 17, cols. 844-1058.)} during the pontificate of Paul I (757-767), though it was dedicated to Stephen IV, who had encouraged him in his studies. He knows Victorinus in the recension of Jerome, and is well acquainted with Tichonius, whose general scheme he has retained. But in the main he copies Primasius. This means that he does not go beyond the well-accepted exposition of the church. However, he enriches his commentary by numerous discourses and queries. He also knows Bede. ^{6Bousset, Die Offenbarung Johannis, p. 68. Bede will be discussed in the chapter on British writers (see page 609), but his influence should be kept in mind throughout this chapter.}PFF1 547.1

He does not contribute any original ideas. Rather, his treatise is a compendium of what has thus far been written on the subject. That, on the other hand, makes his commentary of value and importance, as it constitutes a connecting link in the chain of expositions of the Apocalypse spanning the early Middle Ages, and helps us to check on earlier works that are often fragmentary.PFF1 547.2

3. ALCUIN AN ENDORSER, NOT AN ORIGINATOR

The importance of Autpertus is further augmented by ALCUIN, sometimes Ealwhine, or Alkine (c. 735-804), the most influential teacher and educator of the Carolingian period, who follows Autpertus on practically every point, Alcuin, springing from an old noble family, was born in Northumbria, England. He received the best education the age could provide, under the guidance of the archbishop of York. He soon distinguished himself and was chosen to accompany his venerated teacher to Rome. Returning to England, he was elected rector of the famous school of York, in which he himself had studied. During a second journey to Rome he met Charlemagne, and was invited by him to come to Germany to help the emperor develop his educational plans. He accepted, and became the organizer of the Carolingian reforms.PFF1 547.3

In 796 he received the abbey of Tours, which became the nursery of ecclesiastical and liberal education for the entire kingdom. He was able to gather brilliant young men around him. And wherever, in the following generation, literary activity is visible, one is almost sure to find a pupil of Alcuin. Among them are outstanding men like Arno, archbishop of Salzburg, Theodulph, bishop of Orleans, Eausald, archbishop of York—and last, but not least, Hraban or Rabanus Maurus, who continued Alcuin’s work in the famous school of Fulda. Alcuin was Charlemagne’s adviser in all matters pertaining to his educational reforms and as concerned the church. He was equally interested in promoting the authority of Rome as well as the royal priesthood of Charlemagne. He remained his counselor till his death.PFF1 548.1

One of Alcuin’s most far-reaching innovations was the adoption of the principle of patristic authority. Bede, after giving all due respect to the writings of the Fathers, set forth his own opinion and expected to be honored as of like value, for he did not have the concept of a church whose dogmatic authority rested on a collection of books-that is, in the writings of the Fathers. Alcuin, on the other hand, developed a completely different attitude. He considered the patristic heritage as authoritative and binding. Just what his motive was for such a variance in attitude is difficult to ascertain. Perhaps it was his desire to create a uniform, objective, sufficiently authoritative basis for the education of the clergy in the new realm. He himself surely did not foresee its later far-reaching effects. ^{7H. H. Glunz, History of the Vulgate in England, pp. 79-81.}PFF1 548.2

Taking this background into consideration, we are better prepared to evaluate correctly the immense influence of Alcuin’s writings, even though they merely endorse opinions and expositions made by less-celebrated personalities. This is particularly the case with his commentary on the Apocalypse. This commentary, as found in Migne ^{8Alcuin, Commentaria in Apocalypsim, in Migne, PL, vol. 100, cols. 1085-1156.} is, unfortunately, not complete; it ends with the twelfth chapter and the twelfth verse. As previously mentioned, Alcuin follows Autpertus in the main, and often verbatim, without going into the elaborate detail of the latter. On the other hand, he adds, here and there, material from Bede. That means that the allegorical exegesis—the exegesis which attempted to understand the deeper “spiritual” meaning of the manifold symbols-had taken firm roots. Alcuin became a guiding star for the centuries following.PFF1 549.1

4. RABANUS-STRESSES MYSTICAL, NOT HISTORICAL

Born at Mainz, RABANUS MAURUS, or Hraban (776-856), as he usually called himself, was of noble Frankish stock. He became a deacon in 801, and was ordained a priest in 814. From 822 to 842 he served as abbot of Fulda. He sought to avoid politics, which was not easy in the position he occupied. When that was no longer possible, he resigned, and devoted his time to literary activities. But in 847 the people and the clergy unanimously elected him archbishop of Mainz, which office he accepted reluctantly, and held until his death. Significantly enough, in about his first synodal session, in 847, he stressed the importance of preaching in the vernacular, and not in Latin.PFF1 549.2

Under him Fulda became the seat of learning, and he himself displayed an immense literary activity. His deepest concern was to understand not only the historical but also this “mystical” sense of the Word, and to show the way from the letter to the “spirit.” Besides other works, he wrote commentaries on all the books of the Bible. Unfortunately, his com mentary on the Revelation has been lost. His works occupy six volumes in Migne’s collection. He did not claim originality, and habitually gave credit to those from whom he quoted.PFF1 549.3

In his comments on Second Thessalonians he follows verbatim the opinions of Jerome, omitting, however, to mention Nero as the most wicked Caesar, and speaking of the wicked Caesars in general. ^{9Rabanus Maurus, Enarrationes in Epistulas Pauli. book 12 (on 2 Thess.), in Migne, PL, vol. 112, cols. 571, 572; compare with Jerome, Epistle 121, in Migne, PL, vol. 22, col. 1037.} The reason evidently was that the idea of Nero redivivus-which was so widely cherished at an earlier period-was by this time completely discarded. He quotes further from Augustine, Gregory the Great, and Ambrosius Autpertus in the same chapter.PFF1 550.1

5. WALAFRID-INCLUDES ROMAN CHURCH IN 2 Thessalonians 2

With Rabanus’ pupil WALAFRID STRABO (807-849) we reach the period of medieval glossa literature. ^{10Farrar, History, p. 251. A number of scholars, unwilling to place the glossa literature this early, attribute its origin to the school of Laon. See page 557.} Walafrid was cross-eyed, and was therefore called Strabo. His parents were poor, and his early education was gained under most trying circumstances at the monastery of Reichenau. So, when the opportunity of becoming a pupil of Rabanus offered itself, he went to Fulda and soon distinguished himself by the exactness of his work, combined with the ability to write a faultless Latin. He rose in favor, and became the tutor of one of the princes of the emperor. Later he was called to be abbot of Reichenau. ^{11Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 40, pp. 639, 640.}PFF1 550.2

The Glossa Ordinaria is attributed to him, although some set it at a much later period. The glossa is an explanatory note, or a loosely running commentary. It became widely used during the Middle Ages. The marginal and interlinear glossae were copied from writer to writer, often with meticulous care, and do not therefore give us much new information. But their influence is significant because of their brevity of statement and conciseness of meaning.PFF1 550.3

Walafrid was, however, in many respects quite original in his remarks. For instance, on 2 Thessalonians 2:3 he includes not only the Roman Empire, but gives as an alternative the spiritual empire of the Roman church. This seems to be the very first mention of the Roman church in such a connection.PFF1 550.4

Thus the Glossa explains these phrases of Paul:PFF1 551.1

“Verse 3.-Except there shall have come already [a falling away]. He speaks in a hidden way concerning the destruction of the Roman Empire that he might not incite them to the persecution of the church; or, he says this, concerning the spiritual empire of the Roman Church or the departure from the faith. Unless a fugitive comes first. Thus certain manuscripts have it. No one doubts that he spoke of Antichrist whom he calls a fugitive; certainly he is a fugitive from God. For if this can be said deservedly of all the wicked, how much more about him! Son of perdition, Antichrist not by nature, but by imitation.” ^{12Walafrid Strabo, Glossa Ordinaria, on 2 Thessalonians, in Migne, PL, vol. 114, col. 622.}PFF1 551.2

This last phrase needs explanation. Many held that Antichrist will be the natural offspring of the devil. But Walafrid does not share this belief. He only considers him such by imitation.PFF1 551.3

In his Glossa on the Apocalypse he divides the book into seven visions, like Bede, but he goes further, and indicates the divisions in the text. He applies the seven churches spiritually to members of any church, except that, like Bede, he makes the sixth refer to the persecution in the time of Antichrist; similarly he finds in the seals (1) the church robed in baptismal whiteness (the early church?), (2) open persecution, (3) the secret persecution by the heretics, (4) the open and secret persecution of false fratres perverting the faith under the garb of religion, (5) the assurance of future victory for the faithful,(6) the obscuration of the true light in the time of Antichrist,(7) the introduction of the seven trumpets. ^{13Ibid., on the Apocalypse, cols. 716, 721-723, 725 (see also Bousset, Die Offenbarung Johannis, p. 70).}PFF1 551.4

But in the trumpets a certain historical scheme becomes visible. The theme is the condemnation of the wicked through the preaching which they reject. The first four are in the past:(1) the blindness of the Jews, (2) the turning of the apostles to the Gentiles, (3) the heretics, (4) the apostate members. The last three are future, concerning the end, given for the consolation of the present generation: (5) the star falling is Satan, who opens the pit of the heretics, whence rises the smoke of Antichrist’s doctrine, the locusts are the disciples of the heretics, and the furnace is Antichrist himself, to purify the good and reduce the wicked to ashes; (6) the Euphrates, the river of Babylon, means the worldly princes through whom Satan works; and (7) the end of preaching in the time of Antichrist is followed by the secret reward of the saints, the eternal Sabbath after the six periods of the church’s warfare. ^{14Ibid., cols. 725-729, 731.}PFF1 551.5

The time element given in verse 15-the hour, day, month, and year—he computes to be three and half years, as the period of persecution under Antichrist. ^{15Ibid., col. 728} We shall frequently come across this same period under later expositors as the time given to Antichrist. The three and a half years of Antichrist, and his doings on earth, Walafrid makes obviously to parallel the three and half years of Christ’s ministry on earth. This becomes clear when he assigns the 1260 days of Revelation 12:6—of the woman in the wilderness—likewise to the three and a half years of Christ’s preaching. ^{16Ibid., col. 732.} This parallelism between Christ and Antichrist is stressed in many other instances: Christ is born of God by a virgin; so a child will be born of Satan by a polluted woman. Christ performed miracles; Antichrist will do the same. Christ was from Israel; Antichrist will likewise be from Israel, from the tribe of Dan. And here the length of their respective active periods is the same.PFF1 552.1

Presently we shall learn that Walafrid saw, in the first beast of Revelation 13, Antichrist simulating death, but after three days being carried into the air by demons; and so his deadly wound becomes healed. And in the second beast, Walafrid sees the apostles of Antichrist, whom he disperses all through the world, just as the apostles of Christ went out into all the world ^{17Ibid., cols. 733, 734.}PFF1 552.2

On Revelation 20 he more or less implies the Augustinian theory, but does not mention the thousand-year period specifically. ^{18Ibid., cols. 744, 745.} After Walafrid, the schools of Ferriéres, Auxerre, and Laon developed the glossa further. It thus became the standard method for centuries during the Middle Ages.PFF1 553.1

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: Gradual Reversal of Tichonius Tradition

II. Haymo Pursues Accepted Line of Exposition