IV. Innocent III, the Master of Christendom

One hundred years had to pass before another pope of equal caliber to Gregory VII ascended the papal throne. He was a young man-only thirty-seven years of age-from the illustrious family of the Count of Segni, and named Lothario. He was destined to become Innocent III, the most powerful of all the pontiffs and the achiever of that daring goal of theocratic rule over all the world which Gregory VII had envisioned. Under him the Papacy reached its culmination-the peak of control ling power. He had been ordained a priest but a single day prior to the placing of the tiara upon his head, having previously served as cardinal, archdeacon, and chief adviser to the pope.PFF1 670.16

Innocent III ruled from 1198 to 1216. He had studied law in Paris and Bologna, and was not only a conspicuous scholar, but a man born to rule. It has been said that Gregory was the Julius Caesar, but Innocent III was the Augustus of the papal empire. The ambitious scheme that Gregory VII had projected, Innocent actually brought to realization. In fact, in sheer audacity he surpassed Gregory. Under him the see of Peter became the throne of the world, and from his chancery letters to kings and rulers, cardinals and bishops went forth almost daily. He brought all Europe under his heel.PFF1 671.1

“Order, method, unswerving resolution, inexorable determination, undaunted self-assertion, patience, vigilance, and cunning, all co-operating to the accomplishment of a single well-defined object-and that object the unlimited extension of the political power of the Pontiff of Rome—had achieved a signal triumph over the irregular, the selfish, and the impulsive political opposition of the secular powers.” ^{8Greenwood, Cathedra Petri, vol. 5, pp. 321-368, quoted in Flick, op. cit., p. 566.}PFF1 671.2

He contended that not only the whole church was entrusted to Peter ^{9Innocent III, Letter to Patriarch of Constantinople, in Migne, PL, vol. 214, cols. 759, 760.} but the whole world as well. That is, the pope was not only the vicar of Christ, but even the vicar of God on earth ^{10Innocent III, Letter to Bishop Faventin, in Migne, PL, vol. 214, col. 292.}—thereby meaning that through Christ spiritual power over souls was bestowed upon him, but as vicar of God, who is the ruler of the universe, temporal power as well was vested in him. And to enhance this claim he used, with tremendous effect, two terrible weapons at his disposal. One was excommunication; the other, the interdict.PFF1 671.3

1. TERRORS OF EXCOMMUNICATION AND INTERDICT

Excommunication meant that a private individual who came under its condemnation was thereby made a social outcast. None was allowed to give him shelter, and he was not only excluded from all legal protection but was likewise deprived of the sacraments of the church. And as life eternal, according to medieval belief, was possible only by partaking of the sacraments, the person ex communicated was thereby consigned to perdition. By now the life of the layman, whether king or serf, was completely in the hands of his father confessor.PFF1 671.4

The other weapon was the interdict, which was directed against a city, a region, or a kingdom. It was used to force a ruler to obedience. All religious rites, except baptism and confession, were suspended. It practically stopped all civil government, for the courts of justice were closed, wills could not be made out, and public officials of all kinds were forbidden to function. It lay like a dread curse over the land or the city. ^{11Flick, op. cit., p. 578.} Under Innocent it began to be employed for political purposes as well. This is illustrated in the well-known papal conflicts with Philip Augustus of France and John of England, both of whom were brought to submission through interdicts, the latter being deposed and forced to surrender his kingdom to the pope and receive it back under annual payment as a feudal fief held in vassalage to the pope. ^{12Ibid., pp. 551-555; Ogg, op. cit., p. 380.}PFF1 672.1

2. SUMMONS FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL (1215)

But even more important than his almost unrestricted political sway over Europe, were his unceasing endeavors to increase the religious power of the Latin church. In this field the crowning event of his life was the summoning of the Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, the most splendid gathering of its kind held for many centuries. Four hundred and twelve bishops and eight hundred abbots and priors attended, as well as a large number of delegates representing absent prelates. Representatives of Emperor Frederick II, Emperor Henry of Constantinople, and the kings of England, France, Aragon, Hungary, and Jerusalem, and other crowned heads were likewise present. ^{13David S. Schaff, op. ctt., part 1, pp. 174, 175.}PFF1 672.2

3. TRANSUBSTANTIATION ESTABLISHED

Among many other actions two of utmost importance were taken. One was the exact definition and canonization of the dogma of transubstantiation. Thenceforth any divergent definition of the dogma of the Eucharist would be heresy. The other was the legalization of the Inquisition. ^{14Flick, op. cit., p. 564.}PFF1 672.3

Transubstantiation means that the actual body and blood of Christ are truly contained in the sacraments of the altar, under the mere forms of bread and wine, the bread being transubstantiated into the body and the wine into the blood of Christ by divine power exercised by the priest. ^{15David S. Schaff, op. cit., part 1, p. 714.} This is not the place to enlarge upon the subtle reasoning of the churchmen over the fine points of this dogma. However, the end result stands out clearly—it increased the power of the priest to its utmost limit, and made him the sole mediator between God and the people.PFF1 673.1

This was because his ministering hands alone were regarded as able to work this supreme miracle, to transform the bread and the wine into the real body and blood of Jesus Christ, re creating, so to speak, the Son of God in order that the faithful might partake of His real body, without which there was no salvation. Thus, in reality, the “keys” of heaven and hell were placed in the hands of the priest. That is precisely what the church has been teaching ever since. In the works of St. Alphonsus de Liguori, of the eighteenth century, we read:PFF1 673.2

“The dignity of the priest is also estimated from the power that he has over the real and the mystic body of Jesus Christ.PFF1 673.3

“With regard to the power of priests over the real body of Jesus Christ, it is of faith that when they pronounce the words of consecration the Incarnate Word has obliged himself to obey and to come into their hands under the sacramental species. We are struck with wonder when we hear that God obeyed the voice of Josue.... But our wonder should be far greater when we find that in obedience to the words of his priests—Hoc est Corpus Meum—God himself descends on the altar, that he comes wherever they call him, and as often as they call him, and places himself in their hands, even though they should be his enemies. And after having come, he remains, entirely at their disposal; they move him as they please, from one place to another; they may, if they wish, shut him up in the tabernacle, or expose him on the altar, or carry him outside the church; they may if they choose, eat his flesh, and give him for the food of others....PFF1 673.4

” ‘Never [here he quotes St. Laurence Justinian] did divine goodness give such power to the angels. The angels abide by the order of God, but the priests take him in their hands, distribute him to the faithful, and par take of him as food for themselves.’” ^{16Alphonus de Liguori, Dignity and Duties of the Priest, pp. 26, 27.}PFF1 673.5

4. THE INQUISITION ESTABLISHED BY COUNCIL ACTION

The action second in importance taken by the Fourth Lateran Council, under Innocent’s guiding hand, was the canonical establishment of the Inquisition, or the systematizing of persecution of heresy by council action, the work of extermination being denominated “sacred,” for the prosecutors were called the “Holy Office.” The fight against heretics had been a long-established practice in the Roman church. But now it was thoroughly fixed by the decrees of the Fourth Lateran Council. Previously the Synod of Tours in 1163 had introduced the beginnings of inquisitorial methods, and had forbidden Catholics to mingle with the Albigenses. But it was left for Innocent III to institute the “Holy Office,” as the Inquisition was called.PFF1 674.1

In his famous opening sermon at this notable council of 1215, Innocent employed the vivid symbolism of Ezekiel 9—the man clad in linen applying to the pope passing through the church and seeking out the righteous, to set a mark upon them. And the six men, with the slaughter weapons, were the bishops who punish all not thus marked with the ban and with death.” ^{17Innocent III, Sermon in the 4th Lateran Council, in Migne, PL, vol. 217, cols. 676-678.}PFF1 674.2

Having thus clearly indicated the action he wished taken, Innocent III opened the third canon adopted with an anathema upon heretics of all names. It enjoins princes to swear to protect the faith, on pain of losing their lands. The same indulgences were proffered to those taking part in the extermination of here tics as for those participating in the crusades. Bishops were instructed to make the rounds of their dioceses at least once a year for the express purpose of searching out heresy. ^{18Fourth Lateran Council, canon 3, in H. J. Schroeder, Disciplinary Decrees of the General Councils, pp. 242-244; see also Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar Holmes McNeal. A Source Book for Mediaeval History, pp. 208-215; David S. Schaff, op. cit., part 1, p. 520.}PFF1 674.3

Although presumably acting upon the principle of keeping the faith pure, the church assumed a power which did not belong to her. She set brother against brother. She invaded the sanctity of the realm of conscience, and set in motion a movement that resulted in the indescribable agony of countless millions, and the shedding of veritable streams of blood. The very result as became evident in subsequent times was extermination of the Albigenses, to be followed by the slaughter of unnumbered Waldenses, of the Moriscos in Spain, and later of thou sands of Protestants over Europe. And all this in the name of Christ, the most compassionate!PFF1 674.4

5. LEAVES CHURCH AT PINNACLE OF POWER

Shortly after the close of the council Innocent died, being only fifty-six years of age, but leaving the papal church at the very summit of her power, and having strengthened her foundations as far as earthly wisdom could devise. Thus by the time of Innocent’s death the theocratic principle was fully established. It was then generally conceded that the bishop of Rome was the representative of God on earth, that the pope and priesthood really constituted the visible church, and that the title of the church to its possessions was invulnerable. It was likewise conceded that the pope is the ultimate judge in all spiritual matters, and the dispenser of temporal honors, the sole guardian of the faith and the supreme judge of secular matters, with power to repress and extirpate gainsayers. ^{19Milman, Latin Christianity, book 9, chap. 1, vol. 5, pp. 168-175; David Hume, The History of England, vol. 1, chap. 11.}PFF1 675.1

“No other wearer of the papal tiara has left behind him so many results pregnant with good and ill for the future of the Church. Under him the Papacy reached the culmination of its secular power and prerogatives. The principles of sacerdotal government were fully and intelligently elaborated. The code of ecclesiastical law was completed and enforced. All the Christian princes of Europe were brought to recognize the overlordship of the successor of St. Peter. All the clergy obeyed his will as the one supreme law. Heresy was washed out in blood. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals and the dreams of Hildebrand had been realized. Yet in this very greatness, wealth, and strength, were the germs of weakness and disease which were eventually to overthrow the great structure reared by Innocent III. and his predecessors.” ^{20Flick, op. cit., pp. 566, 567.}PFF1 675.2

6. INNOCENT’S INTERPRETATION OF “BEAST” AND “666.”

A word as to Innocent’s pontifical interpretation of prophecy is in order. In his Convocatory Bull, to this Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, Innocent gave new impetus to the crusaders by stating that Mohammed was clearly the Man of Sin, and that his kingdom would last 666 years. Here is Innocent’s interpretation:PFF1 675.3

“There has arisen a certain son of perdition, the false prophet Mahomet [Machometus], who by worldly allurements and carnal pleasures has turned many from the truth; and though his imposture still continues to flourish, yet we trust in the Lord, who has already granted us a sign for good, that the end of this Beast is drawing near; for his number, according to the Apocalypse of John, is limited to 666, and will soon be brought to an end by the operation of the sevenfold Spirit, who, with the flame of charity, will rekindle the hearts of the faithful, now growing cold: for of that number nearly six hundred years are now elapsed.” ^{21English translation in Charles Maitland, op. cit., p. 325; for the original Latin see Innocent III, Regesta, book 16, year 1213, Letter 28 in Migne, PL, vol. 216, col. 818.}PFF1 676.1

Quite apart from the truth or error of interpretation involved, two points should be noted in passing: First, Innocent spelled Mohammed’s name Machometus, showing that he was not trying to derive the name from the numerical value of the letters—as did others with “Maomet” after the revival of Greek learning—but made the 666 mean years. Second, he interpreted the Beast not as an individual of brief duration, but as a power and empire, both secular and spiritual, already in existence some 600 years—contrary to the usual Catholic teaching concerning the Beast as Antichrist, conceived to be a single individual. And, third, Innocent places the beginning of the Beast’s period back in the seventh century, instead of wholly in the future for three and a half years, as had then become customary. Such is an interesting interpretation of the Papacy’s most powerful pope.PFF1 676.2

Thus the age of Innocent III ended. He was never surpassed by any of his successors. Perhaps Boniface VIII surpassed him, although not in greatness, but only in sheer audacity.PFF1 676.3

This was the peak of papal achievement in world affairs, which very attainment drove men to a restudy of inspired prophecy to find the meaning of it all.PFF1 676.4