II. Character and Significance of Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal Teachings

1. PROPHETS FOLLOWED BY PRIESTS AND PRIESTLY STRUGGLES

We now revert to the historic Jews, for it was among the Hebrews that Platonic Immortal-Soulism first began its inroads among believers in Holy Scripture. Following the close of the line of the Old Testament prophets from among the Hebrews came the period of the priests. Two widely different major sects emerged—the eclectic, traditional, formalist Pharisees (the religious), and the skeptical, materialistic Sadducees (the political) whose interests centered in the Temple and on power.CFF1 633.1

Chart C COMPARATIVE LISTS OF OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS, SHOWING SEPTUAGINT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC ENLARGEMENTS

(Apocryphal Portions Indicated by Italics)

1 2 3 4 Palestinian Jewish Alexandrian Septuagint Roman Catholic Protestant The Law
 Genesis
 Exodus
 Leviticus
 Numbers
 Deuteronomy
The Prophets
 Joshua
 Judges
 1 Samuel
 2 Samuel
 1 Kings
 2 Kings
 Isaiah
 Jeremiah
 Ezekiel
 The Twelve
 (Hosea
 Joel
 Amos
 Obadiah
 Jonah
 Micah
 Nahum
 Habakkuk
 Zephaniah
 Haggai
 Zechariah
 Malachi)
The Writings
 Psalms
 Proverbs
 Job
 Song of Songs
 Ruth
 Lamentations
 Ecclesiastes
 Esther
 Daniel
 Ezra
 Nehemiah
 1 Chronicles
 2 Chronicles
(Without Apocryphal additions) Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Kings (1 Samuel)
2 Kings (2 Samuel)
3 Kings (1 Kings)
4 Kings (2 Kings)
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
1 Esdras
2 Esdras (Ezra and Nehemiah)
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song (of Songs)
Job
Wisdom of Solomon
Wisdom of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus
Esther, with additions
Judith
Tobit
Hosea
Amos
Micah
Joel
Obadiah
Jonah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Baruch
Lamentations
Epistle of Jeremy
Ezekiel
Daniel, with additions of
Song of the Three Children
Susannah
Bel and the Dragon
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
3 Maccabees
4 Maccabees
Psalms of Solomon
Enoch
Odes, including the prayer of Manasses Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Josue (Joshua)
Judges
Ruth
1 Kings (1 Samuel)
2 Kings (2 Samuel)
3 Kings (1 Kings)
4 Kings (2 Kings)
1 Paralipomenon (1 Chronicles)
2 Paralipomenon (2 Chronicles)
1 Esdras (Ezra)
2 Esdras (Nehemiah)
Tobias (Tobit)
Judith
Esther (10:4 to 16:24 added)
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Canticle of Canticles (Song of Solomon)
Wisdom
Ecclesiasticus
Isaias (Isaiah)
Jeremias [including Lamentations], with Baruch
Ezechiel
Daniel [3:24-90 (Song of the Three Children), Chap. 13 (Susanna), and Chap. 14 (Bel and the Dragon) added]
Osee (Hosea)
Joel
Amos
Abdias (Obadiah)
Jonas (Jonah)
Micheas (Micah)
Nahum
Habacuc (Habakkuk)
Sophonias (Zephaniah)
Aggeus (Haggai)
Zacharias (Zechariah)
Malachias (Malachi)
1 Machabees
2 Machabees Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Solomon
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
(Without added Apocrypha) COMPARATIVE LISTS OF OLD TESTAMENT BOOKS, WITH APOCRYPHAL ENLARGEMENTS (IN ITALICS) It will be observed that the Palestinian standard list (without the Apocrypha) is restored in the standard Protestant versions. ^{11) See The Holy Bible According to the Masoretic Text. A New Translation.} On the contrary, the Alexandrian Septuagint, ^{22) See The Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint, ed. by Henry Barclay Swete, vols. 1-3.} or “Larger Canon” (with Apocrypha), is largely followed by the Roman Catholic Vulgate (authorized by the Council of Trent, 1546) ^{44) Charles Joseph Hefele, A History of the Councils of the Church, vol 2 p. 400.} Incidentally, the post-Nicene church list of Hippo (3rd Council of Carthage, 4th cent.) included six apocryphal books, whereas the Medieval Waldensian list, in the Confession of Faith, states that the apocryphal books are extracanonical. The significance of the four lists, the Alexandrian factor, is obvious. (Cf. Prophetic Faith, vol. 1, pp. 76-85.)

The Pharisees were eclectic because their beliefs were drawn from a number of systems; traditional because they placed oral tradition on a parity with Scripture; and formalist because they often neglected weightier matters for scrupulous detail. The Pharisees were the popular party, stressing religious freedom and emphasizing synagogue worship.CFF1 633.2

On the other hand, the Sadducees were skeptical, because they openly denied the Pharisaic postulate of disembodied souls, angels, and spirits. They were materialistic because they rejected belief in retribution in an afterlife, and particularly in the resurrection—explaining away those statements in the Old Testament referring to a future life. The Sadducees, however, never had the following of the masses.CFF1 636.1

In addition, a third Jewish sect was the Essenes, the “monks,” as it were, stressing piety, justice, benevolence, and a hallowed way of life. They lived in communities, linked together by common beliefs and practices. And they were confined to Palestine and Syria.CFF1 636.2

The later Zealots in the early Christian Era were the party of revolt, who had broken away from the Pharisees. They were men of military action, devoted to national independence, who took the sword and fanatically resisted the Roman rule to the death. In fact, it was their resistance that led to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.CFF1 636.3

During this inter-Testament period, in the cross currents of Palestinian Judaism, the Pharisees and Sadducees were in constant conflict, somewhat like the Fundamentalists and Modernists of Protestantism today. Nevertheless, both worshiped in the same Temple, and together formed the Sanhedrin—the supreme governing body of seventy members—with first one group ascendant, then the other, and with the two factions ever struggling for the supremacy.CFF1 636.4

The Sadducees cared little about preserving the purity of the Jewish faith, but were absorbed with the enlargement of political power and prestige. But they were never popular. And with the destruction of Jerusalem the Sanhedrin ended, and the Sadducees ceased to exist. Thus the Pharisees were left to impose their concepts, and concentrated on worship in the synagogue. The legalistic literature of Judaism was collected in the Mishnah, ^{11) Mishnah (Hebrew, “instrucrtion”)—that forms the basis of both the Palestinian and the Babylonian versions of the Talmud.} about A.D. 200, and the Talmud ^{22) Talmud—the compilation that embodies the Mishnah, or oral teaching of the Jews, and the Gemara, or collection of the discussions of the Mishnah. The smaller Jerusalem Talmud (c. A.D. 200) gives the discussions of the Palestinian rabbis, whereas the larger and more important Babylonian Talmud (c. A.D. 500) is the authoritative guide to spiritual life.} followed, between A.D. 200 and 500.CFF1 636.5

2. APOCRYPHAL AND APOCALYPTIC WRITINGS APPEAR

The gap between the writing of the last book of the Old Testament and the first book of the New has often been misconceived as a bleak, barren, and silent period. Nothing could be farther from the truth. These centuries were, in fact, remarkable ones, and anything but barren or silent. Instead, they were filled with intense literary activity, for this was the time when the Jewish apocryphal books were in the process of production and circulation.CFF1 637.1

The Apocrypha, ^{33) Apocrypha (from the Gr. “hidden”)—the fourteen added books of the Old Testament appearing in the Greek Septuagint but not found in the Hebrew canon being excluded by the non-Hellenistic Palestinian Jews, and likewise excluded from the Protestant A.V., R.V., et cetera. They were, however, retained in the Latin Vulgate and in the Roman Catholic Douay Version.} separate from Scripture, was a unique admixture of fact, fancy, and fiction. Truth and error were intermingled. The component books included not only historical and literary treatises but a collection of apocalyptic missives brought forth by mystics and seers, and left on record for the centuries. Some of the Jews accepted them as canonical; ^{44) Canon (from the Gr. “measuring rod” or “rule”)—a list, or catalogue, of the acknowledged inspired writings of the Old, and later of the New, Testament.} others rejected them as noncanonical and apocryphal. But they were neither forbidden nor suppressed.CFF1 637.2

During this critical period many were deeply concerned over conflicting views of truth and error that were current, as well as gravely apprehensive over things to come. The Messianic hope found highly figurative expression, and an increasingly high expectancy marked the era. Many solemnly declared that events of worldwide import and dimension were destined to occur in the predicted latter times, and that the climax of human affairs would be marked by divine interposition. Thus the apocalyptic literature made its appearance, giving utterance to new concepts and often leading away from Judaic patterns of previous centuries.CFF1 637.3

Significantly enough, the question most constantly and ardently discussed was that of eschatology, or the multiple doctrine of the last things—including the nature of the soul, the state and place of the dead, the nature of the resurrection, future rewards and punishments, and the fate of both the wicked and the righteous. That is why an understanding of this literature is incumbent upon us.CFF1 638.1

The time period of the writing of the Apocrypha covers roughly the last two centuries prior to the Christian Era and the first century A.D. The production of these Jewish treatises consequently continued until the apostles had actually completed the writing of the books of the New Testament canon. The New Testament did not therefore appear in the midst of a literary vacuum, as regards our quest.CFF1 638.2

3. PSEUDEPIGRAPHA INVOKES PRESTIGE OF FORMER PROPHETS

The names of former Jewish prophets and leaders were also invoked in support of various of these apocryphal productions. Although the activity of the Hebrew prophets had ended and the Old Testament canon was closed, these apocalyptic writings were frequently sent forth under the name of some ancient Hebrew worthy in order to add greater weight to these new predictions of things to come—such as The Book of Enoch, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Wisdom of Solomon, The Assumption of Moses, et cetera.CFF1 638.3

These were accordingly called pseudepigraphical ^{55) Pseudepigrapha—writings ascribed to some other than their real author, with a view to giving them enhanced authority—as of Enoch, Moses, Solomon, Baruch, Ezra.} writings. Although of unknown authorship, and of none-too-certain dating, they nevertheless afford a valuable insight into this crucial transition period in Jewish thinking and Judaism’s changing outlook—and into the penetration of Platonism into Jewry. Historically, they were actually written and widely read, and exerted considerable influence at the time, as well as subsequently—even to this day. They are therefore important in our quest.CFF1 638.4

4. INFLUENCED BY THINKING OF SURROUNDING NATIONS

Thus it was that these compositions of the Jews—historical, apocalyptical, ethical, mystical, and fictional—were definitely influenced by the impact of the thinking of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, and especially the Greeks under whom the Jews had been subjected in the successive captivities of the centuries. Such is the background setting of the Jewish inter-Testamental apocryphal and apocalyptic literature.CFF1 639.1

Some of these productions were akin to Dante’s Divine Comedy or Milton’s Paradise Lost. Some reflected the thinking and feeling of their age; some forecast the future. And all of them molded Jewish religious thought, especially on the nature and destiny of man. Some of these writings, it will be found, were in harmony with Old Testament truth; others were sharply at variance therewith. And some of the incipient errors of this pre-Christian Era were erelong to develop into full-blown departure from the historic faith of their fathers.CFF1 639.2

5. APOCRYPHA EXCLUDED FROM PALESTINIAN CANON

There is another important point that should be noted here: The apocryphal books, included in the “larger” Alexandrian Greek Septuagint translation, were excluded from the Palestinian Hebrew canon. This fact must not be missed. They were in the Alexandrian version only, and were not accepted at the Jerusalem base. Thus, while the Alexandrian Septuagint translators took certain lesser liberties with the Hebrew text—expanding, abbreviating, transposing, and otherwise modifying—their revolutionary and far-reaching innovation was the adding of these fourteen apocryphal books to the Old Testament canon, all of which were produced after the close of the Old Testament canon.CFF1 639.3

But the New Testament apostle—writers of the newborn Christian Church did not recognize them as canonical. And scholarly, conservative Church Fathers—like Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Cyril of Jerusalem, Julius Africanus, and Jerome—protested against including these Alexandrian accretions in the canon. ^{66) Gregory of Nazianzus and Epiphanius questioned their canonicity, and in the west Jerome especially would not admit them into the Hebrew list as canonical. On the contrary, Ambrose and Augustine placed them on the same footing as canonical Scriptures.} And it is also to be observed that the later difference between the Protestant Old Testament canon and that of Rome is precisely this difference between the Palestinian canon and the larger Alexandrian canon.CFF1 639.4

6. EXTENSIVE COVERAGE JUSTIFIED AND IMPERATIVE

Because of the obviously vital bearing that all this and much more has upon our quest, we shall go rather fully into the historic background. We will trace in this introductory chapter the results of the pressures exerted upon Israel during her captivities, the sources of Judaism’s departures, and the several related factors.CFF1 640.1

The significance of the important witness of the extracanonical Jewish literature of the inter-Testamental period climaxes with the witness of the famous Dead Sea scrolls and their epochal testimony. And the far-reaching, contrasting innovations of Philo Judaeus form their tragic counterpart.CFF1 640.2