29. Greek Philosophy Reaches Summit of Pagan Thinking 529 I. Greek Thinking Exhausts Uninspired Speculative Reasoning 529 1. Imprinted Immortal-Soulism on World Thought 529 2. First Confined to Poets and Philosophers; Never Generally Held 531 3. Early Teaching Portrays Joyless Afterworld 531 4. Five Stages in Philosophical Development 531 5. This Chapter Based on Recognized Authorities 533 II. Preliminary Stage—Initiated by Poets, Cults, and Mysteries 534 1. Homer: Persistence of Life Beyond Death 534 2. Transmigration Theory Introduced by Dionysiac Cult 536 3. Orphics: Permeated With Pantheism and Reincarnationism 537 III. Philosophical Developments—Ionic, Eleatic, and Pythagorean Positions 540 1. Ionian School: “Air,” “Water,” “Fire,” “Infinite” 540 2. Eleatic School: Philosophy Becomes Pantheistic 541 3. Heraclitus: Soul Is Immortal Spark From Eternal Fire 543 4. Pythagoras: Eternity of Soul and Successive Transmigrations 545 30. Sophists React Against Conflicting Speculative Schools 547 I. Paralleling Tragic and Lyric Poets Buttress Positions 547 1. Tides of Poetic Opinion Ebb and Flow 547 2. Pindar: Soul Is “Image of Eternity” 548 II. Inevitable Reaction Under Compromisers, Atomists, and Sophists 549 1. Empedocles: Doomed by Sin to Transmigrations 549 2. Anaxagoras: Dualism and Dissolution of the Soul 551

3. Atomists: Conscious Existence Disappears at Death 553 4. Sophists: Bring Speculative Philosophy to a Standstill 554 5. Such a Survey Justifiable and Essential 556 6. Unparalleled Impact of Grecian Philosophy 557 31. Plato—Pagan Fountainhead of Innate-Immortality Streams 558 I. Interest Centered in Origin, Nature, and Destiny of Soul 560 1. Supreme Attempts to Interpret Riddle of Life 560 2. Impact on Jewish and Christian Thought 560 3. Background and Essence of Plato’s Immortal-Soulism 562 4. Present Life One Episode in Endless Sequence 562 5. Three Main Arguments of Indefeasible Immortality 563 II. Complex Involvements of Plato’s Immortality Postulates 564 1. Origin and Nature of the Cosmos 564 2. Conflicting Recitals of Creation of Man 564 3. Epitome of Plato’s Concept of Soul 566 4. Twofold Souls, Fixed Number, arid Transmigration 568 5. Weird Aggregation of Platonic Concepts 569 6. Mythical Tale of the Judgment Invoked 569 7. Dualism Involved in “Two” Eternal Souls 571 32. Pagan Philosophy’s Basic Arguments for Immortal-Soulism 573 I. The “Phaedo”—Peak of Plato’s Teaching on the Soul 573 1. Immortal-Soulism Not Originally Held by Plato 573 2. Distinctive Angles of Three Dialogues 574 3. “The Soul Is the Man” 574 4. Socrates Welcomes Death as “Initiation” to Afterlife 575 5. Death Declared “Final Step” Into “True Being” 575 6. Death: “Separation” of Soul From “Body” 576 7. Popular View: Soul Perishes at Death 576 8. Living Are Born “Only From the Dead” 577 9. Soul Declared “Immortal,” “Indestructible,” “Indissoluble” 577 10. Postulate of Soul’s Pre-existence Involved 577 11. Souls Must Have Existed Before Birth 578 12. “Soul” Invisible, Unchangeable; “Body” Visible, Changing 579 13. Souls “Imprisoned” in Succession of Animal Bodies 579 14. Soul “Wears Out” Succession of “Many Bodies” 580 15. Soul as Instrumental “Harmony” Argument Dismissed 581 16. Soul’s Immortality Connotes Indestructibility 582 17. Fancied Fate of Incorrigibly Wicked 582 18. Drinks the Hemlock and Faces “Journey” 584 33. Immortal Human Souls Part of World-Soul 585 I. “Phaedrus”—Mythical Flights of Composite Winged Souls 585 1. Crucial Conflicts Between “Parts” of Soul 585 2. Tripartite Division of Soul Built on “Myth” 585 3. “Fault” in “Wings” and “Black Steed” 586 4. Soul Not “Derived,” Hence Not “Destructible” 587 5. “Two Souls“: One “Good,” One “Evil” 587 6. “Self-motion” Is “Essence” of Soul 588 7. “Immortal Soul” Plus “Mortal Body” Equals “Living Being” 588 8. Wing Their Way With the Gods 589 9. Vicissitudes of Disembodied Souls and Wings 589 10. Time Schedule of Progressive Incarnations 589 11. Second Incarnation After Thousand Years 590 12. Souls Become Like the Gods They Follow 591 II. “Timaeus”—“Human Soul” Diluted Part of “World-Soul” 592 1. Plato’s Theory of Universe and Man 592 2. “World-Soul” With Stars as “Divine Souls” 593 3. Dualism: Evil Will Never Cease to Be 594 4. “Soul” Is Source of All Motion 595 5. “Intermediate” Existence Between “Being” and “Becoming” 595 6. Immortal Part of Man Fashioned by Primal Creator 596 7. Successive Births in Scale of Transmigratory Degradation 597 8. All Animated Life Included in “Living Beings” 598 9. Man’s “Immortal Soul” Declared Housed in Head 598 34. Skeptical Reactions Erupt Against Platonism 599 I. Aristotle Abandons Plato’s Postulate of “Personal” Immortality 599 1. Questions Plato’s Reasoning on Immortality 600 2. Aristotle in Sharp Contrast With Plato 601 3. Soul Is the “Principle of Life” 602 4. Only Divine Reason Is Immortal 602 5. Separated Soul Has No “Independent Existence” 603 6. Tripartite Nature: Body, Soul, and Mind 604 7. Rohde Summarizes Aristotle’s Position 604 8. Zeller on Pre-existence, Incarnations, and “Personal Immortality” 604 9. Westcott Agrees With Zeller, Rohde, and Draper 605 10. Other Scholars Agree in Foregoing Evaluations 605 11. Centuries-old Conflict Over Aristotle’s Position 606 II. Widespread Opposition by Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics 607

1. Stoicism: Materialistic Pantheism; Ultimate Loss of Personality 607 2. Periodic Reabsorptions Into Deity 608 3. The Soul a Fragment of the Divine 608 4. Eternal Soul-Essence Loses Personal Individuality 609 5. Hopelessness and Inadequacy of Stoicism 610 III. Epicureanism—Gross Materialism and Cessation of Soul 610 1. Death Brings Permanent Cessation of Life 610 2. World Formations Result of Blind Chance 611 3. Pleasure Canonized Without Restraint 612 4. Separated Soul Utterly Ceases 612 5. May Reappear as Another Person 613 6. Irreconcilable Clashes Between Stoics and Epicureans 613 IV. Skeptics—Pyrrho Undermines Basis of Immortal-Soulism 614 35. Pathetic Despair Predominant Among Roman Thinkers 617 I. Widespread Revolt Against Platonic Positions 617 1. Barren Comfort of Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics 618 2. Manilius: Holds a Fatalistic Pantheism 619 3. Cicero: Vacillates Between Belief and Doubt 619 II. Lucretius—Bleak Materialism and Eternal Death-Sleep 621 1. Book Synopsis Reveals Stark Materialism 622 2. The Terrifying Issues of “Death” 623 3. The “Idle Fancy of Fools” 623 4. “Rarified Wind” Leaves Body at Death 624 5. Both Spirit and Body Are Mortal 624 6. Ridicules “Immortal Spirits” Seeking Bodies 624 7. Death: Eternal Sleep With No Awakening 624 III. Skepticism, Pantheism, Emanation, Refusion—All Intermingled 625 1. Catullus and Horace: Death, Sleep of Eternal Night 625 2. Vergil: Spark of World-Soul Fire Returns to Source 626 3. Ovid: Divine Spark Gave Being to Man 626 4. Seneca: Uncertainty and Contradiction Mark Witness 627 5. Pliny: Pantheistic Universe; Man Part of God 627 6. Epictetus: Refusion of Soul Immediate at Death 628 7. Plutarch: Idea of Annihilation Is Intolerable 628 8. Marcus Aurelius: Soul Reabsorbed Into World-Soul 629 9. Tacitus: Believer in Fatalistic Principle 629 10. Conclusion: Both Views Lead to Extinction of Personality 630 36. Alexandrian Jews Forsake Ancestral Platform 632 I. The Tragedy of the Great Departure 632 II. Character and Significance of Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal Teachings 633 1. Prophets Followed by Priests and Priestly Struggles 633 2. Apocryphal and Apocalyptic Writings Appear 637 3. Pseudepigrapha Invokes Prestige of Former Prophets 638 4. Influenced by Thinking of Surrounding Nations 639 5. Apocrypha Excluded From Palestinian Canon 639 6. Extensive Coverage Justified and Imperative 640 III. Historical Background of Jewish Captivities and Decline 640 1. Subjugation by Babylon, Then by Persia 640 2. Syrian Oppression and Maccabean Revolt 641 3. Rome’s Dominance, Jerusalem’s Destruction, and the Diaspora 641 IV. Triple Exposure to Immortality Postulate in Three Captivities 643 1. Egyptian Immortal-Soulism and Transmigration 643 2. Persian Retributionism and Deadly Dualism 644 3. Greek Immortalism Based on Philosophical Speculation 644 4. Antiochus Seeks to Replace Jewish Usages With Grecian 644 5. Apocryphal Writings Emerge During Maccabean Period 645 6. Pagan Dualism Makes Its Impress 646 V. Alexandria—Intellectual Center of Learned World 647 1. Alexander’s Vision of Greek Intellectual Dominance 647 2. Ptolemies and Seleucids Struggle for Mastery 647 3. Hebrew Students Inducted Into Greek Learning 649 VI. Process Whereby the Jews Changed Their Anthropology 649 1. Shifting From the Ancestral Foundations 649 2. Presented Religious Views in Philosophical Setting 650 3. Transmitted From Jews to Christians 650 4. Philo Fuses It Into a System 651 VII. Source of Revolutionary Concepts of Unseen World 652 1. Revolutionary Concepts Developed in Time of Maccabees 652 2. Persian Impact Strengthens Resurrection Concept 653 3. Speculations Crystallize as to Intermediate State 653 4. Climax Reached in Platonic Concepts Under Philo 654 5. Eternal-Hell Concept a Pagan Invention 655 6. Successive Exiles Leave Permanent Impress 655 37. Alien Note Injected Into Inter-Testament Writings 657 I. Pseudo-Sibyllines-—“Mortal” Man’s Role in Drama of the Ages 659 1. A Reflection of One View of the Soul 659 2. Portrayed Drama of the Judgment 660

II. Fateful Destiny of AH Mankind Portrayed 661 1. Man Is Mortal; God Is Immortal 661 2. Fateful Judgment Day Tries “Mortal” Men 662 3. Resurrected After Fire Reduces to Ashes 662 4. Four World Powers and Eschatological End 663 III. Variant Positions Presented by Minor Writers 664 1. “Tobit“: Grave Is Eternal in Annihilation Effects 664 2. “Sirach“: No Remembrance in the Grave 664 3. “Judith”—Supports Eternal-Torment Concept 665 IV. Differing Books of Maccabees Exemplify Divergencies 666 1. “2 Maccabees”—Innate Immortality With Prayers for Dead 667 2. Believes Both in Immortality and in Resurrection 667 3. Prayer to and Sacrifices for the Dead Commended 667 4. Vicarious Suffering Expiates God’s Anger 668 5. Hope of “Seven Brothers” Based on Resurrection 668 38. Innate Immortality Established by Last Century B.C 671 I. “The Book of Jubilees”—Soul Survives; Resurrection Abandoned 671 1. Innate Immortality Already Firmly Established 672 2. Body Rests; Spirit Lives On Independently 672 II. “4 Maccabees”—Presses Immortal-Soulism Beyond All Predecessors 673 1. Men Go to Respective Rewards at Death 673 2. Righteous Immediately Received Into Heaven 674 3. Wicked Punished With Eternal Torture 674 III. “The Wisdom of Solomon”—Strange Combination of Glaring Contradictions 675 1. Curious Admixture of Truth and Error 676 2. Immortality Is for the Righteous Only 676 3. “Translation” of Some Is Alluded to 677 4. Destruction of Wicked Is Utter End 677 5. Immortality Is Fruit of Righteousness and Obedience 677 IV. Innate Immortality and Noxious Involvements 678 1. Unabashedly Avows Innate Immortality 678 2. “Wisdom” the Source of Immortality 679 3. The Righteous Only Seem to Die 679 4. Assumes Pre-existence of the Soul 680 39. Majority Adhere to Historic Conditionalism 681 I. “Ethiopic Enoch”—Underworld Torments End in Annihilation 681 1. Somber Scenes of Judgment Day Depicted 682 2. Resurrection Expressly Portrayed 682 3. Wicked to Be Utterly Consumed 683 4. Torments of Accursed in Underworld 684 II. “Slavonic Enoch”—Eternal Heaven and Unending Hell for Immortal Souls 685 1. First Jewish Propounder of “Six-Thousand-Year” Theory 685 2. Souls Prepared for Eternity Before World’s Formation 686 3. Free Will, Death, Punishment, and Reward 686 4. Righteous “Live Eternally” in Paradise 686 5. “Merciless Tortures” Are “Eternal Inheritance” of Wicked 686 III. “Syriac Baruch”—Conditionalist View; Righteous Sleep Till Resurrection 687 1. Death, Sleep, and Resurrection 688 2. Eschatological View of the Last Things 688 3. Righteous Dead Sleep Until Messiah’s Return 689 IV. Sets Forth the Conditionalist School of Immortality 689 1. Epitome of Baruch’s Hope of Judaism 689 2. Prays for End of Mortality and Corruption 690 3. Coming Judgment and Messiah’s Advent 690 4. Resurrection and Assemblage of Righteous Dead 690 5. The Dust Gives Up the Dead 691 6. The Punishment of the Wicked 691 7. Body Raised Immortal and Incorruptible 691 8. A “Terminable Retribution” Indicated 692 40. “2 Esdras” Maintains the Conditionalist View 693 I. “2 Esdras”—Immortalization of Righteous and Destruction of Wicked 693 1. History Explained in Light of Original Sin 694 2. World’s End, Final Judgment, and Results 694 3. “Mortal” World Succeeded by “Immortal” Age 695 II. Documented Evidence of Ezra’s Conditionalist Position 696 1. “Mortal Man” in a “Corruptible World” 696 2. “New Age” and the Intermediate State 696 3. Righteous to Live, While Ungodly Perish 697 4. General Resurrection and Final Judgment 697 5. “Sleepers” in the “Dust” Called Forth 697 6. The Wicked Are Doomed to Destruction 697 7. Wicked, as a “Flame,” Ultimately “Extinguished” 698 8. “Treasures of Immortality” Made Manifest to Ezra 699 9. Wicked Brought to “Death by Torment” 699 10. Wicked Perish Because of Disobedience 700 11. Ezra’s Single Prophecy Deals With Eschatology 700 12. Time’s Last Hours, and Mortality 701

41. Neoplatonism’s Development—Jewish, Pagan, and Christian 703 I. Alexandria—Seat of Two Paralleling Schools 703 1. Greek Philosophy Takes Root in Roman Empire 703 2. Neoplatonic School Result of Eclectic Choice 704 3. Alexandria the Center of Conflicting Cultures 705 4. Pagan Neoplatonisrn Becomes Anti-Christian 706 II. Pagan Neoplatonism—Greek Philosophy’s Last Stand 707 1. Philo: Precursor, Builds Upon Emanation Theory 707 2. Lucius: Asserts “World-Soul” Principle 708 3. Numenius: Incarnations Punishments for Previous-Life Sins 708 4. Ammonius: Lays Foundations for Neoplatonism 709 5. Plotinus: Orientalism. Dualism, Emanation, Reabsorption 709 6. Porphyry: Skeptic, Vet Holding to Universal Soul 713 7. Iamblichus: Mytchology, Astrology, Necromancy 713 8. Julian: Suppresses Christianity, Exalts Paganism 714 9. Proclus: Mystic Union of Soul With Deity 714 III. Paralleling Christian Catechetical School 715 1. Alexandrian Center Exerts Powerful Influence 715 2. Characterized by Speculation and Allegorization 716 3. Shadows Deepen Into Midnight of Middle Ages 716 42. Philo Judaeus Fuses Platonic Philosophy With Judaic Doctrine 718 I. Alexandria, Seat of Two Paralleling Schools 718 1. On Borderline of Old and New 718 2. Blends Various Views Into Single System 719 3. Pre-eminent Champion of Immortal-Soulism 719 II. Basic Features of Philo’s Teaching Concerning Man 720 1. “Revelation” the Distinguishing Principle of Neoplatonism 720 2. Philo’s Concept of God Was a Synthesis 722 3. Greek and Hebrew Thought Blended by Allegorization 722 4. Strange Conflicting Concepts of Logos 723 5. Flash Pictures of Philo’s Immortal-Soulism 724 6. Philo’s Responsibility in the Great Departure 726 III. Scope and Significance of Philo’s Innovation 727 1. Contrives “Agreement” of Biblical and Philosophical “Truth” 727 2. Strikes at Origin and Destiny of Man 728 3. Genesis Narrative of Creation Vitiated 729 4. Like All Living Creatures Man Has “Animal” Soul 730 5. Man Also Has Immortal “Rational Soul” 731 6. Curious Theory of “Unbodied Souls” 732 7. Role of Unbodied Soul-Angels 733 8. Definition and Function of Rational Soul 734 9. Immortality Defined as “Eternal Persistence” 734 10. Resurrection and Immortality of Soul 735 11. Definitive Meaning of “Fatherland” of Soul 735 12. Souls Return to Realm of “Unbodied” 736 13. Merges Immortality and Resurrection 737 14. Endless Punishment of the Wicked 737 15. Attested by Scholarly Authorities 739 16. Twin Streams Merge at Alexandria 740 43. Dead Sea Scrolls—Permeated Throughout With Conditionalism 741 I. Timing and Teaching of Essene Brotherhood 742 1. Views of the People of the Scrolls 743 2. Like Waldenses of Medieval Times 743 3. Approaching End of Present Age 744 4. Major Emphasis Is on Last Things 745 5. Prominent Place Given to Angels 745 II. Comprehensive Witness of Scrolls on Man’s Nature and Destiny 746 1. Sinners “Perish”; Righteous “Destined” for “Life Eternal” 746 2. Righteous Stand in God’s Presence Forever 746 3. Man Created for Eternity 747 4. No “Escape” for Wicked in “Final Doom” 747 III. Fate of Wicked Is Utter Extinction 748 1. Wicked to Be “Found No More,” “Cut off.” Wiped Out 748 2. Burned Until They Be “Destroyed” 749 3. Righteous “Never Die”; Wicked “Wither” 749 4. Angels Brought to Judgment and Hell 750 IV. Eternal Redemption and Utter Extinction 750 1. “Dust” Return to “Dust” 750 2. “Perdition Eternal” vs. “Enduring” for All Time 750 3. Iniquity Cannot Exist in God’s Presence 751 4. “Mortal Flesh” Redeemed Forevermore 751 V. Wicked Cease and Wrong Disappears Forever 752 1. Wicked Will Cease to Exist 752 2. Final Clash of Good and Evil 752 3. “Everlasting Redemption” vs. “Annihilation” 752 4. Wrong Will Disappear Forever 753 5. Significance of the Great Digression in Jewry 753

PART II (Chapters 11-28)

PART IV (Chapters 44-64)